Apes land

What are the 3 layers of the earth?

Core, Mantle, Crust

(magnitude) Earthquakes are strong when...

compression of rock is involved. Rocks store energy when squized and when rockes slip energy is released all at once. Steached rock simply breakes, not storing poptential energy.

(depth) Earthquakes are strong when...

one plate goes under the others. Therefore some form of convergence of plate ovement must be involved.

divergent boundaries

2 plates moving away from eachother. Usually occurs with ocean plates. Plates move apart, magma from below spews up to fill the space and hardens to breate new crust (oreo).

What is sea floor spreading

the expansion of the ocean

Divergent boundaries create...

Mid atlantic ridges (long ridges of mountains formed with each new spewingm of magma from below) Small and shallow earthquakes and underwater volacnoes.

mid atlantic ridge is created by what...

Divergent boundries

What is subduction?

When one plate (oceanic because denser) slides under another plate (land) Large oceanic plates goes deep into the mental and melt. lots of pressure and temperature cause the rocks to produce water, this water in the mantel changes the melting points of surrounding rock and causes the rock to melt to magma, then magma spews up to the surface.

What is continental collision?

two land plates moving together

You can see what in subduction

Earthquakes are often DEEP AND LARGE MAGNITUDE, MOUNTIAN CHAINS as land plates collide the land plate has material pile up on it, OCEAN TRENCHES as ocean plate goes under land plate a trench is made, VOLCANOES due to increased magma n mantle ashy and powerful, ISLAND ARC close to were volcanoes would emerge, TSUNAMI when large amounts of energy get released underwater.

What happens in continental collision

LITTLE SUBDUCTION occurs because the plates are the same dencity, earthquakes can be DEEPER AND STRONGER in magnitude due to the potential of a land plate going under another, TALL MOUNTAINS as crust folds upward.

What are transform boundaries

When two plates slide past each other

What can you see in transform boundaries?

SHALLOW EARTHQUAKES (no subduction) magnitude will VARRY but some could be big because a plate could get snagged for a long period of time then relise and create large magnitude.

What are hot spots?

Areas were there is an earthquake or seismic activity but NOT due to movement of plates. in most cases the mantel is unusually active and hot. a MANTEL PLUME comes from the core a moves magma to the surface of the crust.

How was Hawaii created?

There is a mantle plume under Hawaii, THE PLATE MOVES AWAY FROM THE HOT SPOT and a new hot spot is created, new chunks of material are spewed out and new locals are effected by the plum over time.

Overburden

Non-mineral filled rock

Gangue

waste rock

Smelting

Final processing of ore to get pure metal from ore. smelting usually requires the use of HEAT and CHEMICALS to get the metal to the desired outcome

What the steeps of mining?

1. Mine 2. Ore processing 3. Smelting

How is mining done?

surface mining, strip mining, open-pit, mounting top removal.

Strip mining

a very common form of surface mining, were you dig out a trench and pile the over-burn to gain access to ore, ore is removed and a new trench id dug adjacent to the first trench, old trench is filled with over-burn.

Surface mining

removal of upper layers of rock

open pit mining

Pit is dug and minerals are exacted

Mountin top removal

removing the top of a mountain to expose mineral layers

Subsurface mining

When mining is done underground and requires digging mine shafts below ground to access the ore. This method has become less common in recent years.

Pros and cons of subsurface mining

PRO- less land destruction, as accessible minerals supplies dwindle subsurface mining might continue as a way to access hard to reach materials CONS- dangerous (mine-shaft collapse, mine-shaft fires, poor air ventilation) Expensive ( more workers, higher pay, more safety measures, health care costs)

Mining benefits are

provides essential materials, provides minerals that are used as a source of low-cost energy, fuel economic trade and growth, high paying jobs and provides and economic boost in rural and poor areas.

Problems with mines (land alteration)

Overburn removal leads to HABITAT, VEGETATION AND SOIL LOSS. Mined surfaces have more soil erosion. mined land requires RECLAMATION (trying to return the disturbed land to an improved state, replacing top soil, planting vegetation, returning to original topography)

Land subsidence

(sinkhole) in areas of subsurface mining, if the mine shafts are not properly supported or filled in, the land can subside or sink.

What are the health effects of mining?

breathing in PARTICULATE matter causes health problems like reducing LUNG CAPACITY, RESTRICTING AIRWAYS and increased CARDIOVASCULAR problems. coal dust inhalation leads to BLACK LUNG DESIES and ASBESTOS INHALATION leads to cancer.

Acid mine drainage

Water flows through the mine/mine-shaft, water ad exposed minerals interact to for, IRON compounds and SULFURIC ACID. the aid drops the PH of th water which can release heavy metals from sorronding rocks into the water. some water is so ACIDIC THEY BECOME INHABITABLE. acid can also CORRODE HUMAN STRUCTURES like pipes.

Mining produces how much % of solid waste?

75%

Tailing

leftover material and slurry from crunching ore and extracting the desired mineral from the ore, is often kept in large pits or dams on the mine site

Slag

leftover wastes after smelting occurs (the chemical processing of ore to make the mineral product)

what are the problems with coal mines?

coal mines contain a lot of methane, mining them releases a lot of methane into the air. methane heats the air and is explosive which can cause coal mine fires.

Depletion time

when 80% of the mineral supply is gone. the other 20% is considered too hard to extract.

What are the two factors that determine a biome?

precipitation and temperature

What is the difference between temperate and tropical?

temperate biomes have distinct warm and cold SEASONS and tropical biomes get CONSISTENT temperatures.

Soil is what % rocks and minerals

45%

Soil is what % air

25% (can vary)

Soil is what % water

25% (can vary)

Soil is what % organic matter

5%

Organic matter is found where

the top of the soil

Ecosystem services soil does

provides nutrients for plants, provides support for plants, purifies water, stores water, carbon sink, provides habitat, provides medicin

What influences the formation of soil? (COPTT)

Climate (warmer weather=more advancement) Organisms (organisms help the formation of organic matter) Parent material (What type of rock is in the soil) Topography (soil erodes and moves downhill) Time (mre time=richer soil)

O horizon

organic layer, mainly HUMUS(small and large pieces of organic mater)

A horizon

top soil, a MIX of humus and inorganic material

E horizon

(not in all soil) zone of evaluation, WHITE (water steals from this layer)

B horizon

subsoil/zone of illuviation (rock chunks)

C horizon

parent material (large rock chunks)

Physical quality's of soil

SOIL TEXTURE (size of soil particals) WATER-HOLDING CAPACITY (how much water can the soil hold) POROSITY (how many pores are in the rock) PERMIABILITY (how much space is between rock to rock) DENSITY (how much space the soil takes up mass-volume) COLOR (black, White, grey, red, orange, yellow) STRUCTURE (does the soil clump?)

Chemical qualities in soil

pH, Salinity, Humus content, N-P-K, heavy metal content

Biological qualities in soil

Biodiversity of soil Microbes, Decomposition rates, Nitrogen fixation rates

what are the 3 minerals/texture sizes in soil?

Sand (biggest) Silt (medium) Clay (smallest)

What is loam

fairly even mixture of all 3 textures

If you have a long soil ribbon what does is mean?

more clay in soil

If you have a short soil ribbon what does it mean?

More sand in soil

How do you keep soil healthy?

Keep a living root in soil, Keep soil covered, do diverse crop rotations, minimize plowing and add livestock to soil

What is erosion?

the movement of soil from one place to another

what cases soil to erode?

Wind and Water

What are the 3 types of erosion?

Sheet (thin sheets come off soil) Rill ( small channels of soil erode) Gully (canyon of soil is eroded)

What are the problems with soil erosion?

reduces soil fertility (because removes the top soil) pollute water(makes water silty and turbid)

What are the famous soil erosions in history?

the dust bowl (1930) Iraq the "fertile crescent" (ancient Mesopotamia)

How does soil salination occur? and how do you fix it?

There is still a small amount of salt in fresh water so after repeated irrigation there is salt build up in the soil. the only solution is to flush the soil with water and percolate the salt to percolate to lower horizons. this can water-log the roots which is bad for the plants.

What is Desertification? How does it happen?

When soil is changed from once productive soil to less productive soil. Can happen from poor farming practices, overgrazing, and climate change.

What are some BMP for soil?

(Best management practices) alley cropping, cover crops, mulching, strip cropping, terracing, n tillage farming.

What are crop rotations (and how are they linked to healthy soil)

Changing the types of crops you grow on the land each crop growing cycle (Change cover crops, keep a living root)

What is mulching (and how are they linked to healthy soil)

Laying down organic matter/material over the soil (keep soil covered)

What is no till farming (and how are they linked to healthy soil)

No plowing occurs on land; Seeds planted into slits/holes in soil created by a seed drilling machine (minimize plowing)

What is a wind brake/shelter belt (and how are they linked to healthy soil)

Planting a field with plants to provide it protection from the elements. Plants may also help add nutrients to the soil.

What is terrace farming (and how are they linked to healthy soil)

Cutting flat slopes of land into a hillside or mountainside to provide flat locations to farm on.

What is contour farming (and how are they linked to healthy soil)

Planting and plowing rows of crops across the slope of a hill, rather than with the slope of the hill.

What is strip croping (and how are they linked to healthy soil)

Planting multiple crops on a field in alternating rows. One crop is often for money; the second crop reduces erosion and adds nutrients to soil ( keeping a living root, crop rotations)

What is alley croping/agroforestry (and how are they linked to healthy soil)

Lines of crops are planted between rows of trees or trees are grown around crops in pastureland. (keeping a living root)

What are buffer strips (and how are they linked to healthy soil)

Maintaining vegetative zones/boundaries around waterways (keeping a living root)

What is cover crops/green manure (and how are they linked to healthy soil)

Planting a field with plants to provide it protection from the elements. Plants may also help add nutrients to the soil. (Keeping a living root, keeping soil covered)

What is conservation tillege (and how are they linked to healthy soil)

Disturbing the soil minimally when planting/plowing. (minimize plowing, keep soil covered)

Tundra

low amounts of precipitation, consent frozen soil, thin poor soil, most northern biome.

Taiga

slightly warmer than tundra, seasonal, poor thin soil because short growing season, and ever-green needles decompose slowly because they have waxy cuticles and high acidity. gound can sometimes freeze.

temprate grassland

moderate amounts of precipitation in summer, seasonal ( below freezing in winter, warm to hot in summer) THE BEST SOIL due to grasses growing and dying each year

temperate deciduous forest

moderate precipitation, cold winters, warm summers, productive soils due to decent growing season and nutrient cycling. leaves fall off every fall and regrow in spring.

temperate rain forest

daily rain, sightly warmer summers , winters do not usually go below freezing, poor soils due to lack of nutrients, acidic soils form conifer needles

Savana

very dry, except huge rainy seasons, most of the year its warm, thin dry soils, regular fires

Chaparral

dry hot summers, wet mild winters (reverse precipitation) thin and dry soils due to heat and low decomposition levels, shrubby and grassy, REGULAR FIRES (plants sprout quickly after fires, SEROTINOUS cones and seeds, plants give off oils to start fires)

Desert

Dry all year, temperature is dry during day and sometimes cold at nigh or during the winter, thin dry soils, very permeable soils that can develop hart crust due to overheating ans baking in sun

tropical rainforest

wettest biome, temperatures are hot all year and high humidity, fast nutrient cycling and high decomposition, poor soils due to such fast nutrient cycling

What is ecological succession?

change in species composition of an ecosystem overtime

Pioneer species

species that start the sucession

Climax species

species that end the succession

What are primary succession plants?

plants that establish in areas were no soil previously exited

What are secondary succession plants?

Plants that establish in areas where soil already existed. (after something happens)

Is succession predictable?

no, different climax species can result

old-growth forest

forest that have gone to a climax community and have not been disturbed in for many hundreds of years

Second growth forests

Forest that have undergone secondary succession

What biom is most at threat?

Grass lands

What % of grassland in north america have been lost

60-70%

What biome has decreased and what biome has increased?

tall grass prairies have decreased and forests have increased

What has caused the loss in grasslands?

conversion to agriculture, overgrazing, conversion to urban/residential areas, biodiversity loss in grassland species

How to protect grasslands?

Conservation reserve program,

What are some practices for grassland management

allow small amounts of animal grazing, prevent overgrazing, use rotational grazing, MAINTAIN A REGULAR FIRE CYCLE, don't suppress fires, prevent later succession plants like woody shrubs and trees, prevent invasive spices, protection of wetland habitats within grassland