PsychTest2

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

inteligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

Indivisualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather that group identifications

y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

gender role

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

sexual aggression

any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. Can be expressed as either sexual harassment or sexual assault

gender identity

our sense of being male or female, neither, or some combination of the two

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

andyrogyny

displaying both traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

sensory receptors

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli

perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, transforming it into meaningful objects and events

bottom-up processing

information processing that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

subliminal

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd)

Weber's law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

high-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

generalization

in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar responses.

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that if follows

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

obersavtional Learning

learning by observing others

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

general intelligence

according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

cyrstallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Cattel-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory

the theory that our intelligence is based on g as well as specific abilities, bridged by Gf and Gc

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

Behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

identical (monozygotic) twins

individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

faternal (Dizygotic) twins

individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but shared a prenatal environment.

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

epigenetics

"above" or "in addition to" (epi) genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, natural selection

social script

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

norm

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior.

collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

sex

in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define males, females and intersex

gender

in psychology, the behavioral characteristics that people associate with boy, girl, man, and woman.

intersex

possessing both male and female biological sexual characteristics at birth

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

relational agression

an act of agression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing

x chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

testosterone

the most important male sex hormone. Males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

estrogens

sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males.

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

spermarche

their first ejaculation