Bio 111 Exam 4 Study Guide

Urinary System Part I

this covers all the vocab and study guide questions for this lecture

osmoregulation

maintenance of water and solute levels in the body

hypertonic

higher solute concentration than surrounding environment

hypotonic

lower solute concentration than surrounding environment

isotonic

same concentration as the surrounding environment

osmoconformers

isotonic to their environment

osmoregulators

hypertonic OR hypotonic relative to their environment

ex: marine (salt water) fish are hypotonic, they're always losing water via osmosis. they are constantly drinking seawater and they excrete excess salt through gills.

ex: freshwater fish are hypertonic. they are always gaining water via osmosis. they drink very little and frequently urinate.

catabolism

(a breakdown) of proteins and nucleic acids which produce ammonia (NH3)

ammonia (NH3)

it is toxic

nitrogen waste

animals remove ammonia in different ways:
* diffusion of NH3 into water
* excreting urea
* excreting uric acid

urea

land mammals produce this

the liver converts ammonia into urea

it is a small energy requirement, but it requires a lot of water for excretion

uric acid

birds and reptiles produce this

it is more concentrated than urea, so less water is lost

high energy requirement to form uric acid

diffusion

movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

liver

relative to the urinary system lecture part I, the liver aids in converting ammonia into urea

urine excretion

the excretory system (urinary system in mammals,) controls the excretion of urine

What are the two functions of the urinary system?

1. osmoregulation
2. excretion of nitrogen waste

What is osmoregulation?

the maintenance of water and solute levels in the body

What does it mean for tissues/cells/solutions to be hypertonic? Hypotonic? Isotonic?

1. Hypertonic - higher solute concentration than than the surrounding environment

2. Hypotonic - lower solute concentration than the surrounding environment

3. Isotonic - Same solute concentration as the surrounding environment

What is an osmoconformer and what animals are considered osmoconformers?

an osmoconformer is isotonicc to their environment.

marine invertebrates are osmoconformers

ex: jellyfish, starfish, mussles, lobsters, also sharks

What is an osmoregulator?

osmoregulators are hypertonic OR isotonic relative to their environment

What is an example of an animal that is hypotonic to its environment and how does it survive?

salt water fish; they constantly drink seawater and excrete excess salt through gills

What is an example of an animal that is hypertonic to its environment and how does it survive?

freshwater fish; they drink very little and urine frequently

What are ways lands mammals gain water in their bodies?

1. Ingestion and absorption: drinking fluids and eating food

2. Respiration: H+ ions are added to O2 in ETC, creating H2O

What are ways land mammals lose water in their bodies?

1. Urinary excretion
2. Evaporation from skin
3. sweating
4. fecal excretion (pooping)

What are the three ways animals excrete nitrogen waste and what are examples of animals that do each?

1. diffusion of ammonia into water (fish)

2. excreting urea (land mammals)

3. excreting uric acid (birds and reptiles)

What are the water loss and energy tradeoffs of transforming nitrogen waste for excretion?

1. in fish, there is very little energy required and the ammonia diffuses into the surrounding water

2. in land mammals, we would lose too much water if we diluted ammonia. instead, our liver converts ammonia into urea which requires a small energy "input" but requires a lot of water for excretion

3. in birds and reptiles, less water water is lost. however, more energy is required to form uric acid, which is more concentrated than urea

What organ in humans transforms nitrogen waste into urea?

the liver

Urinary System Part II

all the vocab and study guide questions

kidney

the kidneys are the main functional organs in the urinary system.

they filter blood and produce urine

ureter

tube that carries urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder

urinary bladder

where urine is stored until excretion out of the urethra

urethra

tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body

renal artery

blood vessel that carries blood to the kidney from the heart

renal vein

blood vessel that carries blood away from the kidney and toward the heart

renal capsule

covers outer surface of kidney

renal cortex

outer region of the kidney where blood filtration and urine production happens

renal medulla

the innermost part of the kidney where blood filtration and urine production also happens

renal pelvis

funnel-shaped reservoir that collects the urine and passes it to the ureter

nephron

functional unit of the kidney. about one million nephrons in a single human kidney

glomerular filtration

the first step in urine formation where blood is pushed from the glomerular capillary (blood vessel) into the Bowman's capsule. this is where the plasma (liquid part of blood) enters nephron, the blood cells and proteins stay behind

Bowman's capsule

cup-shaped structure of the nephron of a kidney which encloses the glomerular capillary and where blood is pushed

plasma

liquid part of blood

tubular reabsorption

99% of water and most solutes are moved from the proximal tubule back into the blood

most Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, and all glucose and amino acids return to blood

proximal tubule

structure of the kidney where most Na+, Ca2+, Cl-, glucose, and amino acids and transferred back into the blood stream

tubular secretion

substances transported from blood stream into proximal tubule

ex: H+ ions and some foreign organic molecules such as broken down drugs, food additives, and pesticides

urine concentration

concentrates solutes by pulling water out of urine

loop of Henle

extends deep into renal medulla. the solute concentration outside of the loop increases the deeper into the medulla it gets. the outside is always hypertonic. as urine descends into the loop of Henle, water moves out via osmosis. the rising arm does not let water out. Na+ is pumped out to maintain hypertonic solution outside of loop

antidiuretic hormone

released by the endocrine system when water level drops. ADH (antidiuretic hormone) increases water retention by urinary system.

What are the four major organs of the urinary system?

1. Kidney (2)
2. Ureter (2)
3. Urinary bladder
4. Urethra

In which parts of the kidney does blood filtration and urine production occur?

the renal cortex and the renal medulla

What is the functional unit of the kidney that filters blood, eliminates waste, and retains water?

nephron

What are the four steps of blood filtration in the nephron?

1. glomerular filtraion
2. tubular reabsorption
3. tubular secretion
4. urine concentration

What happens during glomerular filtration?

blood is pushed from the glomerular capillary into the Bowman's capsule. the plasma enters the nephron while blood cells and proteins stay behind

What happens during tubular reabsorption and what products are reabsorbed?

99% of water and most solutes are moved from the proximal tubule back into the blood.

most Na+, Cl-, Ca2+ and all glucose and amino acids return to the blood.

What happens during tubular secretion and what products are secreted?

substances are transported from the blood stream into the proximal tubule.

H+ ions as well as some foreign organic molecules such as broken down drugs, food additives, and pesticides.

What happens during urine concentration and how does the loop of Henle allow water to be reabsorbed?

solutes are concentrated by pulling water out of urine.

the descending arm of the loop moves water out via osmosis, the ascending arm does not let water out, instead Na+ is pumped out to maintain hypertonic solution outside of loop

Where does glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion happen, in what part of the kidney?

renal cortex

Where does urine concentration happen, in what part of the kidney?

renal medulla

How is concentrated urine stored then expelled? Which organs are involved?

urinary bladder stores the concentrated urine until it is excreted out of the urethra.

urinary bladder and urethra are the organs involved.

Respiratory System Part I

vocab and study guide questions

oxygen

gas that enters the blood through the lungs and travels to the heart to be pumped via arteries to all body cells

carbon dioxide

a gas that is expelled from the body by the respiratory system

viscosity

a liquid's resistance to flow (harder to move)

gills

thin, feather-like organs that have many blood vessels and a high surface area

tracheal respiratory system

insects have this. conducted of many small, branched tubes (trachea) throughout the body. many opening to outside: spiracles

trachea

windpipe; tube through which air moves

tracheal tubes

these spread throughout the body of insects and bring in O2 and take CO2 away

spiracles

openings in the abdomen of an insect that are used for breathing

exoskeleton

external skeleton; tough external covering that protects and supports the body of many invertebrates

What two gases are exchanged in the respiratory system?

oxygen and carbon dioxide

Which of these gasses is at high concentration in animal? Which is at low concentration?

In animals there is a high concentration of CO2 and a low concentration of oxygen

What process in animals uses O2 as a reactant and generates CO2 as a product?

aerobic respiration

How do small organisms exchange gasses with the atmosphere/their environment?

worms for example have blood vessels at skin surface that exchanges gas with the surroundings

Why does O2 diffuse more slowly in water than in air?

due to water having a high viscosity where it is harder to move throughout

How do aquatic organisms such as fish exchange gasses with the environment?

they pass water over gills

How do land animals, specifically insects, exchange gasses with the environment?

insects exchange gas through a tracheal respiratory system in which the movement of the exoskeleton draws in air

there are some special cases such as dragonflies and larvae that use gills for oxygen

Urinary System Part II

vocab and study guide questions

nasal cavity and oral cavity

bring air into the body
* moisten
* warm
* filter

sinuses

sinuses are associated with the naval cavity. they are air-filled cavities that produce mucus

mucus

enters the nasal cavity and moistens the air we breathe and traps pathogens

pharynx (throat)

air enters the pharynx from the nasal and oral cavities.

epiglottis

closes when you swallow, keeps food out of the respiratory tract

larynx

your voice box, connects the pharynx (throat) with the trachea

trachea (windpipe)

long tube connecting the upper and lower respiratory tract

upper respiratory system

consists of the mouth, nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx

lower respiratory system

bronchi and lungs

bronchi

split from the trachea into bronchioles and carry air to individual lungs

lungs

in-folded sacs specialized for gas exchange

they begin to form during gastrulation (endoderm)

gastrulation

the process in which a gastrula develops from a blastula by the inward migration of cells

endoderm

forms respiratory and digestive tracts

bronchioles

branched tubes that get smaller until they end in alveoli

alveoli

tiny sacs at the end of the respiratory tract; the functional units of the respiratory system; they increase the surface area inside of lungs; site of gas exchange between our bodies and the atmosphere

capillaries

tiny blood vessels

cilia

tiny hairs

lysozyme

breaks open bacterial cells; antibody and defensive enzyme

sinusitis

inflammation of the sinuses; pathogens grow into excess fluids; typically happens after a respiratory bacterial or viral infection

pneumonia

happen when alveoli fill with fluid resulting from defensive secretion; reduces gas exchange causing fatigue and shortness of breath; there are many forms, bacterial, viral, and fungal

cystic fibrosis

a genetic epithelial disease; the epithelial cells in the respiratory tract absorb too much water, it thickens mucus which reduces the body's ability to eliminate pathogens; recurring infections damage lung tissue and the life expectancy for cystic fibrosis patients is roughly 44 years

lung cancer

uncontrolled cell division in lung tissue; mainly caused by smoking, second hand smoke, and pollution; early diagnosis is difficult because symptoms only present at later stages; it is the highest cancer mortality rate in the US

epithelial cells

respiratory epithelial cells line the respiratory tract from trachea to bronchi into bronchioles and alveolar sacs

What are the main two functions of the respiratory system?

1. gas exchange
2. defense