Unit 1 Psych

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Physiology

study of living organisms and body function

Philosophy

study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

Wilhem Wundt

Father of Modern Psychology; structuralist that established psychology's first laboratory

Edward B. Titchener

introduced structuralism

Functionalism

An early school of psychology concerned with the adaptive purpose, or function, of mind and behavior

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

Gestalt Psychology

early perspective in psychology focusing on perception and sensation, particularly looking at the whole rather than individual parts

Max Wertheimer

founder of Gestalt psychology

Behaviorism

an early school in psychology that emphasizes observable behavior and how it's learned

John B. Watson

Founder of behaviorism; Little Albert experiment

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats; Skinner's Box

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic

an early school in psychology concerned with the study of the unconscious, includes childhood and aggression issues

Sigmund Freud

founder of psychoanalysis

Biological/Neuroscience/Neurobiological Perspective

modern view of psychology concerned with brain mechanisms, hormonal influences, and genetic predispositions and their impact on behavior and personality

Behavoral Perspective

a modern viewpoint which finds the source of our actions in the environmental stimuli, rather than in the inner mental processes

Sociocultural Perspective

modern view emphasizes the importance of social interaction, social learning and a cultural perspective

Evolutionary Perspective

modern view that behavior comes from the traits that best allow an organism to survive and reproduce (natural selection)

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection

Biopsychosocial Perspective

Modern viewpoint that considers the influences of biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors

Cognitive Perspective

A modern psychological view that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior

Humanistic Perspective

the modern psychological view that assumes the existence of the self and emphasizes the importance of self-awareness and the freedom to make choices

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"

Mary Whiton Calkins

American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality, and dreams; first woman president of the American Psychological Association

Dorothea Dix

Rights activist on behalf of mentally ill patients - created first wave of US mental asylums

G. Stanley Hall

first american male to earn a Ph.D in psychology; First APA president

Jean Piaget

Known for his theory of cognitive development in children

Carl Rogers

Humanisic; self-concept and unconditional positive regard drive personality

Margaret Floy Washburn

first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology

biological psychology

a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Cognitive Psychology

the scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning

counseling psychology

area of psychology that focuses on improving emotional, social, vocational, and other aspects of the lives of psychologically healthy individuals

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

experimental psychology

the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific investigation of basic psychological processes such as learning, memory, and cognition in humans and animals

human factors psychology

a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

industrial-organizational psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Psychometric Psychology

The branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and personality traits

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to objectively describe research variables; makes it easier for others to replicate the study

Generalizability

the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied

descriptive research

purpose is to observe and record behavior and can't give you cause and effect or control over variables but you can generalize your findings with some methods

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Observer bias

when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations

Hawthorne effect

A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied

Case Studies

studies that involve extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

longitudinal study

a study that observes the same participants on many occasions over a long period of time

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

implicit bias

attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner

representative sample

a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole

non-response bias

bias introduced to a sample when a large fraction of those sampled fails to respond

correlational research

purpose is to examine the relationships between variables but does not specify cause and effect but it can be used to predict outcomes

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

positive correlation

one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction. (+1.00)

negative correlation

one variable increases as the other variable decreases (-1.00)

no correlation

there does not appear to be a relationship between two sets of data (0.00)

correlation coefficient

a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

(+/-) 0.00-0.29

none to weak relationship

(+/-) 0.30-0.69

moderate relationship

(+/-) 0.70-1.00

strong relationship

Third or Missing Variable Problem

A non-causal relationship might exist between the two variables

It is possible that there is some other variable or factor that is causing the outcome

Common Response

changes in both x and y are caused by changes in a lurking variable z

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

illusionary correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

experimental research

purpose is to establish cause and effect relationships between variables but there can be confounding variables and bias

control group

the group that is not exposed to the treatment; serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

experimental group

the group exposed to the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested

placebo effect

the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior

single-blind experiment

an arrangement in which participants remain unaware of whether they are in the experimental group or the control group

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

experimenter bias

a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

positively skewed distribution

The mean will be higher than the median

negatively skewed distribution

The mean will be lower than the median

normal distribution (bell curve)

a symmetrical distribution with values clustered around a central, mean value

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

high standard deviation

data is loosely spread over a range of values

low standard deviation

data is tightly clustered around the mean

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

p-value

allows us to test significance of data; less than 0.05 is statistically significant

American Psychological Association (APA)

professional organization representing psychologists in the United States; etsablished ethical guidelines and gives licensure

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology.

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

deception

misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Confidentiality

the act of holding information in confidence, not to be released to unauthorized individuals