SOC 101 Exam #1

Sociology

The scientific study of human social relations, groups, and societies.

Sociological Imagination

The ability to grasp the relationship between individual lives and the larger social forces that help to shape them.

Agency

The ability of individuals and groups to exercise free will and to influence social change on a small or large scale.

Structure

Patterned social arrangements that have an effect of agency. Force individuals to “comply” with the rules of the institution.

The 3 Sociological Theoretical Paradigms

Functionalism, Social Conflict, Symbolic Interactionism

Structural Functionalism

Society in which individuals fulfill functional roles that work together to create social organization

Social Conflict Perspective/Paradigm

A theory that seeks to explain social organization and change in terms of conflict such as inequality, exploitation, and uprisings.

Social Interactionism

A micro social perspective that posits both the individual self and society as a whole are the products of social interactions based on symbols.

Symbols

Any gesture, sign, object, signal, or word that has a shared understanding in a given society

Auguste Comte

Founded sociology, discussed social revolutions (positivism)

Social Statics

(Auguste Comte) the way society is held together

Social Dynamics

(Auguste Comte) the laws that govern social change

Emile Durkheim

Founded functionalism and social solidarity

Anomie

(Emile Durkheim) A social condition of normlessness that occurs when people lose touch with the shared rules and values that give order and meaning to their lives

Karl Marx

Father of the conflict perspective

Proletariat

The working class, wage workers

Bourgeoisie

The capitalist (property-owning) class

Max Weber

Predicted the world would organize into bureaucracies (iron cage)

W.E.B. Du Bois

Introduced the study of class, race, and identity to sociology

Double Consciousness

Being aware of the values of both cultures that someone identifies with, making them never free from racial stigma

Scientific research method

Learning about the world through logically constructed theory and systematic examinations to explain how things work.

Theory vs hypothesis

A hypothesis is derived from theories and can be falsified through repeated testing. A theory is simply an explanation of why a phenomenon exists and can be backed by hypotheses.

Field studies

Usually qualitative and highly used in sociology

Participant observation

Don’t involve yourself in the investigation (qualitative and highly used in sociology)

Secondary Data Analysis of Existing Statistics

Document analysis, large scale survey results (can be quantitative or qualitative)

Experiments

Rarely used in sociology

Correlational Relationship

The degree to which two (or more) variables are associated with one another.

Casual Relationship

One variable has a direct effect to cause a change in another variable.

Positivism

How sociology approaches gathering knowledge

Interpretive Research

The researcher doesn’t start out with a hypothesis but gathers it along the way

Critical Research

Critiquing known theories with the purpose to prove or disprove them.

Ethics!

Studies need: consent, to keep all information confidential, to not be coercive or manipulative, to tell participants exactly what will happen.

Culture

The beliefs, norms, behaviors, and products common to the members of a particular group that brings meaning to the social world

Subculture

Cultures that exist together with a dominant culture but differ in some important respects

4 components of culture

Symbols, language, values, norms

Material Culture

The physical objects that are created, embraced, or consumed by society that help shape people’s lives

Language

Is a symbol that can be verbal, non-verbal, or written. The difference is language conveys a meaning. (Ex. Move that way, “hello”)

Folkways

Fairly weak norms that, when violated are not considered very serious offenses (ex. Sitting next to the one person on an empty bus)

Mores

Strongly held norms that, when violated, may cause social isolation (ex. Not showering, screaming in the middle of a store)

Taboos

Powerful mores that, if violated, are considered serious offenses that are often forbidden in law (ex. Cannibalism)

Ideal culture vs. real culture

What we aim to embrace in a society vs. what is actually exhibited in a society (ex. US: freedom! Best values! Best country! Vs. need for social change, and freedom for most)

Globalization

The process of international integration arising from the interchange of worldviews, products, ideas and mutual sharing, and other aspects of culture

Global culture

A culture that has spread across the world that unifies the cultures of various countries (US culture)

Factors Facilitating Globalization

Travel, economics, media

Mass media

Media of public consumption intended to reach and influence a mass audience

High culture

The music, theater, literature, food, and other cultural products that are helped in particularity high esteem in society.

Popular culture

The music, theater, literature, food, and other cultural products shared by the masses.

Etic perspective

The perspective of the outside observer

Emic Perspective

The perspective of the insider, the one belonging to the cultural group in question

Cultural Relativism

A worldview whereby the practices of a society are understood sociologically in terms of that society’s norms and values, and not the norms and values of another society.

Functionalists studying culture focus on:

How cultural values influence norms, social solidarity, agent of socialization (who is teaching?)

Conflict perspective of culture focuses on:

Use of power to ensure one culture subordinates another culture, intercultural misunderstandings, social class reproduction

Symbolic interactionism perspectives on culture focus on:

Small differences in symbols, language, and cultures and how these influence the development of our identities (life goals and how we relate to others)

Socialization

The process by which people learn the culture of their society

Social actors/presentation of the self

People play different roles to manage the impressions of others

Behaviorism

A psychological perspective that emphasizes the effect of direct rewards and punishments on human behavior (dog and bell experiment)

Social learning

Learning by observing other people’s behavior and the outcomes of this behavior and using this to adapt one’s own behavior and attitudes

Role taking/role theory

The ability to take the roles of others in interactions to help guide behavior

Looking glass self

The concept that our self image developed from how we interpret other people’s view of us

Piaget’s theory

Cognitive development

Kohlberg’s theory

Moral development

Primary groups

Smaller groups characterized by intense emotional ties, face to face interaction, intimacy, and a strong, enduring sense of commitment (ex. family, romantic partners, close friends)

Secondary groups

larger groups that are less personal and characterized by fleeting relationships (ex. School friends)

Reference groups

Groups that provide standards for judging our attitudes or behaviors (ex. Peers, coworkers)

Agents of socialization

The family, school, peers, religion, work, media

4 factors influencing group dynamics:

Size, authority, conformity, expected outcomes

Alliance

A subgroup that forms between group members, enabling them to dominate the group in their own interest

Social closure

The ability of a group to strategically and consciously exclude outsiders or those deemed “undesirable” from participating in the group or enjoying the group’s resources

Transformational leader

A leader who is able to instill in the members of the group a sense of mission or higher purpose

Transactional leader

A leader who focuses on supervision, organization, and group performance

Legitimate authority

A type of power that is recognized as rightful by those over whom it is exercised (ex. Ruling Monarch)

Positional power

A person’s power is determined by their position in a group (ex. Boss, supervisor)

Personal power

A person with the ability to persuade rather than relying on a position of power or ability to command (ex. Leader of a protest)

Asch’s conformity theory

People will alter their behaviors and attitudes to conform the behaviors and attitudes of the group

Groupthink

A process by which members of a group ignore ways of thinking and plans of action that go against a perceived group consensus (usually cause detrimental outcomes for the group)

Obedience to authority

Ordinary people will conform to orders given by someone in a position of power or authority, particularly when the authority is understood to take responsibility for the action (think holocaust)

Cultural capital vs social capital

Knowledge of values and traditions vs social connections and networking

Informal group

A group that is not organizationally determined or influenced and usually formed by the members themselves for social purposes (ex. Friend group)

Formal group

Any group that is deliberately formed by its members or an external authority for a specified purpose (ex. Study group, volunteer organization)

Organization

A group with identifiable membership that engages in concerted collective actions to achieve a common purpose

Coercive organization

An organization in which people are forced to give unquestioned obedience to authority (ex. Prison, military)

Utilitarian organization

An organization that people join primarily because of some material benefit they expect to receive (ex. College)

Normative organization

Organization that people join of their own will to pursue morally worthwhile goals without expectation of material reward (ex. Volunteer organization)

Bureaucracies

A type of formal organization based on written procedural rules, arranged into a clear hierarchy of authority, staffed by full time staff

Bureaucracies function with:

Specialized offices, hierarchy, impersonal record keeping, technically competent staff

Iron law of oligarchy

All forms of organization, regardless of how democratic they may be at the start, will eventually and inevitably develop oligarchic tendencies, thus making true democracy practically and theoretically impossible

International governmental organization

An international organization established by treaties between governments to facilitate and regulate trade between the member countries, promote national security, protect social welfare and human rights, or ensure environmental protection (NATO)

International nongovernmental organization

An international organization established by agreements between the individuals or private organizations making up the membership and existing to fulfill an explicit mission

Deviance

Any attitude, behavior, or condition that violates cultural norms or societal laws and results in disapproval, hostility or sanction

Informal deviance

Actions and behaviors that violate social norms (breaking folkways and mores)

Formal deviance

Actions and behaviors that violate formally enacted rules (breaking mores and taboos)

Deviance can be broken up into:

Everyday deviance, sexual deviance, deviance among the powerful

Sexual deviance

Ranges from wearing exposing clothing to pedophelia (hey, u up?)

Social control

The attempts of particular people or groups to control the behaviors of other individuals and groups in order to increase the likelihood they will conform to the established norms or laws of a given society

Informal control

Unofficial methods on discouraging deviance through social cues, symbolic behaviors (ostracism), and verbal labels

Formal control

Official attempts to discourage certain behaviors that most often involve rules and punishments (official policies or laws)

Deviance = crime?

No

Biological perspective on deviance:

Chemical imbalances in the brain, primitive biology, and skull shapes are used to determine deviance (outdated, but there are still a few links)

Functionalism perspective of deviance:

Deviance clarifies norms, unifies groups, diffuses tension, and promotes social change

Structural strain theory

When there is a gap between the cultural goals of a society and the means to achieve those goals, rates of deviance will be high