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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

\#1: Self-actualization (Achieving one's full potential) \n \n #2: Esteem (prestige/accomplishment) \n \n #3: Belongingness and love \n \n #4: Safety \n \n #5: Physiological (food/water)

Developmental Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Errors of scale

children below 3 y/o have skewed representation of space, distance, and size

Piaget

"children think fundamentally different" \n - believed that development progressed in stages, not linear

Conservation of volume

not noticing that things are constant

False belief

assuming everyone knows the same info as you

Features of stage-based models

\- Qualitative Differences

\- Structured Wholes

\- Invariant Sequence (always in one sequence, can't undevelop)

\- Universal Sequence

\- Hierarchical Integration (20 y/o can understand 5 y/o thinking, but not vice versa)

Piaget 4 Stages

\#1: Sensorimotor (

Universal sequence

can't skip stages, can not reach the end but can't undevelop

Infant challenges (developmental methods)

don't speak \n can't follow instruction

ethical issues

can't consent, possibly scarring them

short attention spans

Habituation (developmental methods)

Babies attend to novel things

f they suddenly regain interest, something new has occured

Sucking responses \n - babies tend to suck more on a pacifier when excited

Innateness Debate

\- controversial debate about certain things being innate

\- language, naive physics, theory of mind, intuitive math (number)

Innateness ball drop paradigm

babies stare longer when ball unexpectedly falls through the table \n - do babies know basic physics?

Project Prakash

\n - a project in India where kids born with cataracts and no doctors to remove them

\- EX. describe a black/white cow as 10 different objects, unless it's moving

Theory of Mind

\n Perspective taking \n - adult asks kid what they're playing with over phone, they'll say "this!"

Appearance reality \n - sponge looks like a rock, kid says it's a rock, when they hold it they'll say it's a sponge and looks like a sponge, rather than a sponge that looks like a rock

Understand goals \n - habituation studies with teddy bear demonstration switching place example

Focus of attention \n - "what are the penguins in this photo looking at?"

What children do vs. don't know (theory of mind)

DO know:

\- attention \n - goal directed action

\- intentionality

\- preference

\
DON'T know:

\- perspective taking

\- appearance reality

\- false belief

Developing Altruism

even at a young age, children prefer the triangle because it helped the circle get up the hill

Behaviorist Theories

\- morality can't be observed

The Character Education Project

\- teachers demonstrating helpful behaviors & discussions DIDN'T HELP

\- rewards & punishments HELP

children would only engage in these behaviors if they were being watched

Piaget's Theories

\n - learning wouldn't help morality, development would

Autonomy is to act upon a superior governance over us.

Heteronomy is to act solely upon our desires.

\- Piaget noticed kids younger focused on consequences, older focused on intentions

Kohlberg's Theories

Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation

Stage 2: Instrumental/Relativist Orientation \n (more about personal well-being)

Stage 3: Interpersonal Concordance Orientation (caring about what people think)

Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation (following rules)

Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation (what is best for society) \n Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation \n (never violating a person)

\- discovered that after stage 3, you split towards 4, 5, or 6

Harlow's Monkeys

\- harlow says reward, food, and physical comfort make us love our mothers

\- monkeys preferred cloth monkey over wire monkey with food

\- monkeys only last 90 days without mother before social recovery becomes impossible

Strange Situation (testing attachment style)

Insecure Avoidant: Don't react when mom leaves the room or comes back. More focused on environment than relationship \n Insecure Ambivalent: Difficulty disengaging from mother. Extreme distress when mother leaves, difficulty being comforted

Secure: Use mother as secure base. Some distress when mother leaves, but easily comforted

Self Theories

praising kids on effort rather than success

\- applies to everything: music, athletics, etc.

\
\- Oppenheimer says entity theory is better when succeeding in life, and incremental theory is better when you aren't

Self Control (in children)

\- kids self-control on marshmallow study predicts SAT scores

A Science Tale

\- moms who have gone to college have kids that do well on marshmallow test

Lifespan Development

\n Regarding old age,

\- they're maximizing short-term interest because they know they don't have a lot of time

Conformity (line length experiment)

On over a third of the trials, participants conformed to agreeing with the planted participants

Social roles

Stanford Prison Study \n - Prisoners conformed to submissive prisoner role when prompted

\- Guards conformed to aggressive guard role when prompted

Obedience

Milgram Study

\- teacher/student shock study

\- even nice people hurt others

Bystander Nonintervention

when people see someone in need but fail to help them

Kitty Genovese

woman whose murder in front of witnesses led to research on bystander effect \n - 38 witnesses, nobody intervened

Bystander paradox

The more people in a place, the less likely people are to intervene

What causes the bystander paradox?

Noticing - You can't help if you don't notice what happened

Interpreting - Knowing that an ambiguous event requires intervention

\n Pluralistic ignorance - Other people's lack of a reaction is a cue that nothing is wrong

Taking Responsibility - An individual's belief that his/her intervention is necessary to fix things

Diffusion of Responsibility - Every person believes that somebody else will deal with the problem

\
Furthermore: \n - If people cannot think of a way to help, they won't do so

\- Worrying about how others will view you if you intervene (Audience Inhibition)

How to overcome the diffusion of responsibility? (bystander nonintervention)

Singling out an individual, making them feel obligated

Audience Inhibition

Worrying about how others will view you if you intervene

Confusion surrounding personality

Maybe in some situations, people behave in positive ways and then in other situations they behave in negative ways

The CANOE (or OCEAN) of personality

Conscientiousness - Being on time, doing what you say you are going to do

Agreeableness - Friendliness

\n Neuroticism - How emotional you are.. in particular negative emotions

\n Openness - Willingness to try new things \n

Extroversion - How you get energy: with others or alone?

Non-valenced dimensions (of personality)

\- these dimensions aren't good or bad, it is just a description

Agreeableness:

If low, "ruthless" \n If high, "pushover"

What happens to personality traits over time?

Becomes more entrenched within oneself over time

Other personality constructs

\- Need for cognition

\- Need for closure

\- Regulatory focus

Emotional Intelligence

You can predict a 5-year-olds SAT score 13 years down the line by how long they can resist eating a marshmallow

Situationism states its case for milgram & zimbardo study

\- situation affects people so powerfully it changes them

\- power of the situation was stronger than their personality, behavior fundamentally changed

\- "It's not that we put bad apples into a good barrel. We put good apples into a bad barrel. The barrel corrupts anything it touches..." Phil Zimbardo

Princeton Seminary study (situationism)

When people were told they had time to get to where they needed to go, they stopped to help the person who was planted laying injured on the ground on the way to the destination

Honesty Studies (situationism)

\- give people chances to display honesty, engaging in one case doesn't mean engaging in another

\- if personality were real, would be better predicted

Summer Camp Studies

\- personal judgments of personality depend more on who is doing the rating than who is being rated

researchers visited people in an isolated African community and got a whole different set of personality descriptors

So why do we believe it? (situationism)

\- If personality is so malleable, why do we have such strong intuition?

\- Fundamental Attribution Error

\- don't know situation,

\- person comes in late to class, you might immediately assume they are a poor student, but maybe they were hit by a bus

Personality rebuttal

Honesty Studies

\- any two behaviors don't predict one another

\- noise & signal -> noise on both observations

\- wisdom of crowds

\- half of behavior can be predicted, not that people aren't predicted but there's noise

Situationism rebuttal

Milgram Study

\- personality isn't about variability but consistency

\- personality requires consistency

\- noise in measurements

\- need to see response to authority in another situation

Summary between personality vs situationism

The extroverts, regardless of situation, are always more extroverted

\- You take an introvert to a party, and they become like an extrovert

\- You take an extrovert to a library, and they become like an introvert

The big question (political psych)

\- how did experts get their prediction so wrong in the 2016 presidential election?

\- what experts think drives voting behavior

The Rational Voter Model

\n - looking at issues, forming an opinion, voting based on those values

Ignorance (in voting)

\n - people said they wanted to impeach Clinton when she wasn't even in office

\- people didn't realize what they were saying

\- people have no idea how little we actually spend on foreign aid

\- in conclusion, there's too much to know!

Memory (in voting)

\- even if we know all info we need to know, our memory is flawed

\- people don't remember facts this way

\- if we don't know much, what do we rely on?

Confirmation Bias (in voting)

\n - Trump voters look at image & say Trump had more people present at his inauguration, but he clearly didn't

\- our beliefs corrupt what we see & think

\- not about Democrat & Republican

Metacognition

\- people don't really know where their candidates stand!

\- when asked to express that -> they realized they didn't know

\- goes for all issues & parties

Summary of political knowledge

\- we don't know where candidates stand

\- we don't know about the issues

instead... we follow candidates & agree with what they think

\- still not stable because we don't always know what they think

How do we vote?

\- where we vote depends on what we live closest to

\- where we vote primes different areas

\- people voting in a certain environment changes behavior

"Find the Republican" (candidate experiment)

\- person on right doesn't "look like a republican"

\- the more a person "looks like" a party, the more votes they get

\- if we were perfectly rational, looks wouldn't matter at all

What Pundits Say (olympics bump)

\- Obama's polls went up during Olympics

\- watched US win Olympics, make people feel like good citizens about the country, increase voting

Incompetence (in voting)

\- Pat Buchanan heavily voted for, but hates Jewish people, and in an area with a high Jewish population

\- people incorrectly voted

Voter Turnout

\- which people turn up, weather patterns influence voter turnout

\- snow storm -> elderly people probably can't go out to vote

\- incompetence is knowing who you want to vote for but making an error on the ballot

\- are there some groups more likely to make errors on ballots?

Democracy works?

\- citizens who live in democracies have better living conditions, even though inputs are a mess

\- in Africa, African countries with democracies had better living conditions

\- non-democracies replaced by democracies saw improvement

\- doesn't really make sense because people technically don't know

\- democracies -> people engage in productive behaviors

Procedural Justice

people are likely to engage in systems when they have a say & feel things are fair

History of stereotypes

\- who we oppress changes

\- hope that some day we could become a post-racial society

may not ever be a post-group society

Stereotypes

cognitive schemas about the members of a certain group

Prejudice

attitudes towards a person based on his/her membership in a specific group

Benefits of stereotypes

\- not all stereotypes are wrong

\- go to paramedics for emergencies

\- go to paramedics for emergencies

\- principles of cognitive economy

\- efficient to reduce labels in the world

\- reduces cognitive load -> "useful"

Origins of stereotypes

Classical Conditioning - learned associations (ex. know people in France speak French)

Social Learning Theory - stereotypes taught from family/peers

Confirmation Bias - seeking stereotypes confirming information (there can be false associations) \n

Origins of prejudice

\n Realistic conflict theory - stems from scarce resources

\- when economy is good, people get along

\- people start direction hate when economy is bad

In-group vs out-group

\n - division of groups is arbitrary (mostly)

\- completely arbitrary divisions creates biases

\- dividing class in half -> people will advocate for their half

\- switched labels that looks like opposite group

\- Israeli proposal labeled as Palestinian proposal

\- label mattered more than actual content

\- people liked proposal labeled as their own side

Out-group homogeneity effects

\- assume out-groups are much more similar to one another even thought we recognize differences within our own group

\- current political climate -> think they all think the same & are their most extreme "representative"

Cognitive consequences

\- find root of problem

\- problematic (but not atypical) neural network

\- everyone has neural net associations, influence the way they behave

\- connections are different, but see similar connections amongst all races

\- study with Stanford students, flashed different pictures

Biased Processing

\- may have no bias, but once race comes into play, people may not explicitly be racist, but racist stereotypes work

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy (bias/stereotypes)

\- teachers that were told two randomly chosen students were "spurters"

\- end of year, changed teachers behavior towards children, children did better even though there were no "spurters"

Threats of stereotypes

\- people judged by stereotypes are under threat

\- same test, one said minorities do worse, one said minorities do better, results reflected truth even though it was made up

\- running from police, might be more violent

\- changed policy, police who cornered suspect weren't allowed to engage with them

Avoid Knee-Jerk Interventions

\- someone yelled at for being racist probably won't stop what they're doing

Contact Hypothesis

\n - exposure to other races sometimes reduces stereotypes

Super-ordinate Goals

Sherif's Robber's Cave Experiments \n - kids at a summer camp divided into arbitrary groups, open to hate each other until they had a super-ordinate group

Attribute Driven Processing (cognitive interventions)

\- encouraging people to pay attention to unique characteristics

\- the more you know about a person, the less stereotypes apply

Recategorization (cognitive interventions)

\- the more you know about a person, the less stereotypes apply

Justification (cognitive interventions)

Being forced to justify decisions pushes beyond mere associative processing

Ineffective approaches (stereotypes)

\- work towards social justice may not effect change

\- need to change neural networks

\- hard to criticize well-intentioned activity even if

California/Michigan happiness comparison

everyone thinks they'd be happier in California \n - people in Michigan & California are just as happy

Affective Forecasting \n - everyone has good & bad things going on

Emotion as Attribution

\- happy things make you happy -> what people think, but not true

\- world creates responses which create emotion, not vice versa

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

\- events lead to physical changes

\- emotions are the result of awareness of those changes

Facial Feedback (emotion)

\- people making facial expressions impacts how you may feel

\- ex. furrow your brow, you might feel more confused or anxious

\- pencil between teeth -> mimic smiling

\- pencil between lips -> mimic frowning

Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion

Emotion is the confluence of: \n - physical arousal

\- cognitive interpretation

Misattribution Studies

wind blows and bridge swings, scary bridge \n - have attractive women approach men off bridge or in parking lot

the men confused physical attraction nerves with the fear of the actual bridge \n - heartbeat effect in films can influence the viewers heartrate

Counterfactuals (emotion)

silver medalists should objectively be happier than bronze medalists \n - silver medalist reliably looked less happy than bronze, strangely

silver is like "I could have gotten gold", bronze is like "I am happy to be here" \n - not about objective experience, but cognitive interpretations

Universal Emotion

evidence that we feel emotion the same \n - seeing fearful things -> feel fear

smile in happiness & sneer in disgust, same responses \n - every language has words for emotions

7 universal emotions psychologists generally agree on

not all languages have the same words for emotions \n - Schadenfreude - joy at other's misfortune (German)

we don't express "shame" as much in western culture \n - culture influences emotion

Non-Universal Emotions

Things that look similar evoke similar emotion \n - with a brand new toilet, if you pour brand new apple juice into the bowl, people still wouldn't drink it because they have an obvious bad association there

Law of Similarity (affective heuristics)

people buying things off a celebrity, "the essence of the celebrity rubbed off on the object"... if you were asked to use Hitler's comb, you wouldn't

Law of Contagion (affective heuristics)

people buying things off a celebrity, "the essence of the celebrity rubbed off on the object"... if you were asked to use Hitler's comb, you wouldn't

Reverse Contagion (affective heuristics)

not wanting Hitler or politician to use an object you own \n - emotion corrupts logic

Positivity Bias & Fading Affect Bias

older people say college was the highlight of their life, but it was probably stressful at the time \n - negative emotion fades faster than positive emotion

Diary Study \n - rate emotions, go back a few weeks later, you'll think things in the past were better than they were!

Memory vs Experience

\- want to maximize experience for now or memories for late

Hand in the Water Study \n - people have hand in cold water vs hand in cold water & it gets slightly warmer at the end- people look at the peak & end experience more

Emotion Regulation

\- watch movie vs getting prize if someone can't guess your emotion during movie

\- can look at it from a "cinematographic" lens -> reappraisal

\- or suppress your emotion, feel but don't show it -> suppressing

\- when allowed to express emotion, doesn't feel as strong

Cognitive Consequences (emotion)

both modes of regulation can create cognitive load