AP Psychology: Unit II Review - Biological Bases

Heredity

The passing on of traits from parents to offspring through genes.

Environment

The surroundings and conditions in which an organism lives and interacts.

Endocrine system

The system in the body that regulates hormones and influences behaviors.

Hormone

A chemical messenger released by the endocrine system into the bloodstream to regulate behaviors.

Hypothalamus

A small region of the brain that plays a crucial role in regulating the endocrine system.

Pituitary gland

Considered the master gland because it controls the activity of most other hormone-secreting glands.

Pineal gland

A gland in the brain that regulates hormones, including melatonin.

Adrenal gland

A gland that releases adrenaline during fight-or-flight responses.

Nervous system

The body's primary communication network, divided into the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.

Central nervous system

Contains the brain and spinal cord, responsible for all behaviors and mental processes.

Peripheral nervous system

Contains all nerve endings throughout the body, divided into the autonomic and somatic nervous systems.

Autonomic nervous system

Regulates involuntary functions such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion.

Sympathetic nervous system

Activated during fight-or-flight responses.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Responsible for returning the body to a normal state after fight-or-flight responses.

Somatic nervous system

In charge of voluntary functions.

Neurons

Tiny cells in the brain that communicate information throughout the body.

Glial cells

Cells that provide nutrition and remove waste from neurons.

Nucleus

Contains the cell's genetic materials.

Cell body or soma

Provides structural support for the cell and assists in sending neural messages.

Dendrites

Branch off of the cell body and are responsible for receiving messages.

Myelin sheath

A fatty substance that surrounds the axon and speeds up neural transmission speeds.

Node of Ranvier

The gap in between the myelin sheath that allows for the message to diffuse in and out of the neuron.

Axon

The part of the neuron responsible for sending information to the next neuron.

Axon terminal

The tip of each axon where neurotransmitters are stored in preparation for being sent to other cells.

Schwann cells

Cells that wrap around axons to form the myelin sheath.

Sensory neurons

Neurons that take information from the environment and report it back to the brain, as well as take information from the skin and internal organs to send back to the brain.

Motor neurons

Neurons responsible for communicating information to the muscles and glands of the body.

Interneurons

Neurons in charge of communicating information from neuron to neuron, found in the brain and spinal cord.

Action potential

A brief electrical impulse gathered by the cell body and dendrites that stimulates the cell enough to allow for a message to be sent.

Stimulus threshold

The level of stimulation required for a neuron to reach its action potential.

All-or-none law

The principle that a neuron will either receive enough stimulation for an action potential to occur, or it will not and an action potential won't occur.

Refractory period

A brief period after an action potential where the neuron is recharging and can have another action potential.

Resting potential

When a neuron is ready to fire off another action potential if it receives enough stimulation.

Synaptic gap

The tiny fluid-filled space between the axon of the presynaptic neuron and the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers stored in synaptic vesicles in the axon terminal that attach to specific receptor sites on the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron.

Reuptake

The process where neurotransmitters detach from the receptor site and are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron.

Dopamine

Involved in movement, attention, learning, and the experience of pleasurable sensations.

Serotonin

Involved in sleep, sensory perception, moods, and emotional state.

Norepinephrine

Plays a role in the fight-or-flight response, regulates sleep, memory, and learning.

GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Slows down brain activity.

Acetylcholine

Stimulates muscles to contract and helps with learning and memory.

Endorphins

Our body's natural painkillers, similar in structure to morphine and other opioids.

Glutamate

Neurotransmitter that counteracts GABA and speeds up brain activity, involved in learning, memory, and sensory processing.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that work to slow down brain activity.

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that work to speed up brain activity.

Agonist

Substance or drug that binds to a receptor site and triggers a response in a cell.

Antagonist

Drug or substance that blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter.

Brain stem

Connects the spinal cord to the rest of the brain, regulates vital life functions.

Medulla

Part of the brain stem responsible for controlling vital life functions such as breathing and heart rate.

Pons

Part of the brain stem that helps coordinate movements on the left and right side of the body.

Reticular formation

Part of the brain stem that helps regulate attention and alertness.

Basal ganglia

Part of the brain stem that contains the substantia, responsible for dopamine production.

Cerebral cortex

Outer layer of the forebrain, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions.

Corpus callosum

Bridge that links the left and right cerebral hemispheres for communication.

Temporal lobe

Processes auditory information.

Occipital lobe

Processes visual information.

Parietal lobe

Processes somatic sensations.

Frontal lobe

Processes voluntary muscle movement and is involved in thinking, planning, and emotional control.

Limbic system

Brain areas that border around the brainstem, involved in learning, memory, and emotion.

Hippocampus

Plays a role in learning and the consolidation of memories.

Thalamus

Processes and integrates sensory memories (except for smell) and sends them to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

Links the brain to the endocrine system and regulates hunger, thirst, sleep, and sexual behavior.

Prefrontal lobe

Responsible for problem-solving, emotional control, and complex thought.

Primary somatosensory cortex

Processes somatic sensations throughout the body.

Primary motor cortex

Responsible for generating neural impulses that control movement.

Broca's area

Responsible for productive speech.

Wernicke's area

Responsible for comprehension of language.

Aphasia

Partial or complete inability to articulate ideas or understand spoken or written language.

Cortical localization

Idea that different functions of the brain are located in different areas.

Lateralization of function

Notion that psychological or cognitive functions are processed primarily on one side of the brain.

Split brain operation

Surgical procedure where the corpus callosum is cut to decrease epileptic seizures.

Left hemisphere

Processes stimuli on the right side of the body.

Right hemisphere

Processes stimuli on the left side of the body.

Split brain

A condition where the corpus callosum, the bundle of nerves connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain, is severed, resulting in limited communication between the two hemispheres.

Lateralization of function

The specialization of certain functions in either the left or right hemisphere of the brain.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A brain scan that uses strong magnets and radio waves to produce detailed images of internal organs.

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A brain scan that measures changes in blood flow to determine which parts of the brain are involved in different functions.

CAT scan (Computerized Axial Tomography)

A brain scan that uses x-rays to produce 2D images that can be combined to create a 3D model of the brain.

PET scan (Positron Emission Tomography)

A brain scan that uses a small amount of radioactive substance to detect metabolic activity and blood flow in the brain.

EEG (Electroencephalograph)

A brain scan that measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize itself and form new neural connections.

Phineas Gage

A case study of a man who suffered a traumatic brain injury that damaged his frontal lobe, resulting in significant changes in his personality and emotions.

States of consciousness

Different levels of awareness, including preconscious (information that can easily be brought into conscious awareness) and non-conscious (processes inaccessible to consciousness).

Unconscious mind

The level of consciousness that includes repressed wishes and desires that are not directly available for conscious awareness.

Psychoactive drugs

Chemical substances that change brain function and result in the alteration of perceptions, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior.

Depressants

Category of psychoactive drugs that suppress or inhibit brain activity, such as alcohol or benzodiazepines.

Stimulants

Category of psychoactive drugs that increase brain activity, arouse behavior, and increase mental alertness, such as caffeine, nicotine, and cocaine.

Hallucinogens

Category of psychoactive drugs that distort perception and evoke vivid images in the absence of sensory stimuli, such as LSD, psilocybin, and THC.

Restorative theory

Theory that states we sleep to repair our body and brain.

Adaptive theory

Theory that states we sleep at night to protect ourselves from predators.

Circadian rhythm

Our internal 24-hour biological clock that regulates our sleep/wake cycle.

Melatonin

Hormone produced by the pineal gland that helps regulate our sleep/wake cycle.

NREM sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep, characterized by different stages including alpha brainwaves, theta brainwaves, and delta brainwaves.

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, characterized by active brainwaves, darting eye movements, and the occurrence of dreams.

Sleep paralysis

State where the mind regains consciousness before REM sleep is over, resulting in the inability to move and possible hallucinations.

Sleep cycle

A complete cycle of NREM and REM sleep, lasting around 90 minutes.

REM rebound

Phenomenon where the body jump-starts the REM stage of sleep to compensate for lack of sleep.

Insomnia

Sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or feeling rested in the morning.

Narcolepsy

Sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and brief episodes of involuntary sleep cycles.

Sleep apnea

Sleep disorder characterized by repeated pauses in breathing during sleep, often associated with an unhealthy weight.