SOCIAL SCIENCE CONCEPTS!!!

Internalization

the process by which an individual learns and accepts the social values, rules and norms of conduct relevant to his or her social group or wider society

Indoctrination

Instruction in the rudiments and principles of any science or belief system; information

Generalization

the process of extending a specific instance to a wider or universal set.

Memorization

the process of committing something to memory

Survey

typically structured questionnaires designed to collect information from large numbers of people in standardised form

Interview

A method of gathering information by asking questions orally, either face to face or by telephone

Participant Observation

involves the researcher joining a group of people, taking an active part in their day to day lives as a member of that group and making in-depth recordings of what she sees

Focus Group Discussion

a qualitative research method and datacollection technique in which a selected group of people discusses a given topic or issue in-depth, facilitated by a professional, external moderator

Fieldwork

gathering primary data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey

Sociography

is writing on society, societal sub-divisions and societal patterns, done without first conducting the in-depth study typically required in the academic field of sociology

Ethnography

the detailed study of small groups of people (for example, in factories, classrooms, hospitals, 'deviant' sub-cultures) within a complex society. Used as a procedure for getting an understanding from the subjects' point of view. This approach is used means of gaining an understanding through an immersion of the researcher in the field of study.

Diffusionism

refers to the diffusion or transmission of cultural characteristics or traits from the common society to all other societies.

sociological imagination

simply a "quality of mind" that allows one to grasp "history and biography and the relations between the two within society." For Mills the difference between effective sociological thought and that thought which fails rested upon imagination.

Objectivity

a frame of mind so that personal prejudices, preferences or predilections of the

social scientists do not contaminate the collection of analysis of data

Ethical neutrality (Weber)

"While the values and interests social scientists hold necessarily affect the questions we pose, the phenomena we choose to study, and our modes of investigation, these values and interests should not affect our application of widely-accepted

protocols for the collection, analysis, and presentation of evidence."

Empirical investigation

research that is based on experimentation or observation, i.e.

Evidence

William H. Sheldon

an American psychologist, believed that your body type can be linked to your personality.

Ectomorph

anxious, self-conscious, artistic, thoughtful, quiet, and private. They enjoy intellectual stimulation and feel uncomfortable in social situations.

Endomorph

relaxed, comfortable, good-humored, even-tempered, sociable, and tolerant.

these types enjoy affection and detest disapproval

Mesomorph

adventurous, assertive, competitive, and fearless. They are curious and enjoy

trying new things, but can also be obnoxious and aggressive.

Deviant Behavior (Rober K. Merton)

based on two criteria: (1) a person's motivations or adherence to cultural goals; (2) a person's belief in how to attain her goals.

socialization of new members

the fundamental task of social institutions in any society

state

In his lecture "Politics as a Vocation" (1918), the German sociologist Max Weber defines the __________ as a "human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory."

Pluralism

A mixing of different cultures in which each culture retains its own unique identity,

often referred to as the "salad bowl."

Ghettoization

a social process of isolation and confinement of members of a particular

community to a restricted area. It leads to limitation of their activities and opportunities of development

Socialism

an economic system in which there is government ownership (often referred to

as "state run") of goods and their production, with an impetus to share work and wealth

equally among the members of a society.

Feudalism

A hierarchical society based on land ownership and protection.

Capitalism

as an economic system in which there is private ownership (as opposed to state

ownership) and where there is an impetus to produce profit, and thereby wealth.

Monopolism

exclusive control by one group of the means of producing or selling a

commodity or service

Consecutive Sampling

very similar to convenience sampling except that it seeks to include ALL accessible subjects as part of the sample.

Convenience Sampling

a non-probability sample in which the researcher uses the subjects that are nearest and available to participate in the research study

Purposive Sampling

one that is selected based on the knowledge of a population and the purpose of the study

Quota Sampling

one in which units are selected into a sample on the basis of pre-specified characteristics so that the total sample has the same distribution of characteristics assumed to exist in the population being studied.

racial classification

a useful device for differentiating humans with slightly different physical features

Marx rejected Comte's positivism. He believed that societies grew and changed as a result of the struggles of different social classes over the means of production

nature of marx's theory compared to august comte

Modernization Theory

proposes that high-income nations became wealthy by adopting the proper values, technologies, and beliefs. This include embracing hard work, willingness to abandon old ways and evolve, and a future-oriented outlook. Approaches and attitudes toward technology are also central issues for _____ theorists. They view the adoption of new technology as a key difference between high-income and low-income countries. They argue that the cultural values of some nations produce a resistance to embracing new technology.

Consummate

Intimacy, passion, and commitment are present in this love. This is often the ideal type of love. The couple shares passion; the spark has not died, and the closeness is there. They feel like best friends as well as lovers and they are committed to staying together.

Romantic

Intimacy and passion are components of this love, but there is no commitment. The partners spend much time with one another and enjoy their closeness but have not made plans to continue 'no matter what'. This may be true because they are not in a position to make such commitments or because they are looking for passion and closeness and are afraid it will die out if they commit to one another and start to focus on other kinds of obligations.

Fatuous

However, some people who have a strong physical attraction push for commitment early in the relationship. Passion and commitment are aspects of this love. There is no intimacy and the commitment is premature. Partners rarely talk seriously or share their ideas

Empty

This type of love may be found later in a relationship or in a relationship that was formed to meet needs other than intimacy or passion (money, childrearing, status). Here the partners are committed to staying in the relationship (for the children, because of a religious conviction, or because there are no alternatives perhaps), but do not share ideas or feelings with each other and have no physical attraction for one another.

Opponent-process theory (of color vision)

suggests that our ability to perceive color is

controlled by three receptor complexes with opposing actions. These three receptor complexes are the red-green complex, the blue-yellow complex, and the black-white complex

Signal Detection theory

a means to measure the ability to differentiate between information-bearing patterns (called stimulus in living organisms, signal in machines) and random patterns that distract from the information (called noise, consisting of background stimuli and random activity of the detection machine and of the nervous system of the operator)

Top-down processing

a cognitive process that initiates with our thoughts, which flow down to lower-level functions, such as the senses

Trichromatic theory (of vision)

there are three receptors in the retina that are responsible for the perception of color. One receptor is sensitive to the color green, another to the color blue, and a third to the color red. The combinations of these three colors produce all of the colors that we are capable of perceiving.

The postsynaptic neuron would get another dose of the neurotransmitter and a new nerve impulse would be made.

If there is a falure to reuptake the excess neurotransmitter back into the presynaptic cell

Calming coping

it's helpful to calm your physiology so you reverse your stress response. Calming strategies include the following: meditation, breathing exercises, and aromatherapy.

Cognitive restructuring

a group of therapeutic techniques that help people notice and change their negative thinking patterns. these techniques deconstruct

unhelpful thoughts and rebuild them in a more balanced and accurate way.

Emotion-focused coping

a type of stress management that involves trying to reduce the negative emotional responses associated with stress such as embarrassment, fear, anxiety, depression, excitement and frustration. This may be the only realistic option when the source

of stress is outside the person's control.

Problem-focused coping

targets the causes of stress in practical ways which tackles the

problem or stressful situation that is causing stress, consequently directly reducing the stress.

Approach-avoidance conflict

arises when a goal has both positive and negative aspects,

Morphology

the study of words and other meaningful units of language like suffixes and prefixes

Phonology

the study of phonemes, which are the speech sounds of an individual language

Semantics

about the meaning of sentences. Someone who studies this is interested in

words and what real-world object or concept those words denote, or point to.

Syntax

the study of sentences and phrases, or how people put words into the right order so that they can communicate meaningfully. All languages have underlying rules of this is,

which, along with morphological rules, make up every language's grammar

Displacement

a psychological defense mechanism in which a person redirects a negative emotion from its original source to a less threatening recipient that is less likely to come with repercussions

Rationalization

a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud involving a cognitive distortion of "the facts" to make an event or an impulse less threatening.

Reaction formation

is a psychological defense mechanism in which a person goes beyond denial and behaves in the opposite way to which he or she thinks or feels.

Intellectualization

according to Freud involves engrossing oneself so deeply in the reasoning aspect of a situation that you completely disregard the emotional aspect that is involved.

Agape

an altruistic, selfless love. These partners give of themselves without expecting anything in return

Platonic

a type of love in which there is no overt sexual behavior or desire.

Romantic

Intimacy and passion are components of this love, but there is no

commitment. The partners spend much time with one another and enjoy their closeness but have not made plans to continue 'no matter what'. This may be true because they are not in a position to make such commitments or because they are looking for passion and closeness and are afraid it will die out if they commit to one another and start to focus on other kinds of obligations.

Affectionate

is the type of love that occurs when individuals desire to have the other person near and have a deep, caring affection for the person (Santrock, 2003)

Schema

important in part because they help us remember new information by providing an organizational structure for it

Semantic networks

This model proposes a netlike organization of concepts in memory, with many interconnections. Each concept can be represented as a node. There are links or associations that connect a particular node with other concept nodes.

Hierarchical Networks

items stored in semantic memory are connected by links in a huge network. All human knowledge, knowledge of objects, events, persons, concepts, etc. are organised into a hierarchy arranged into two sets. The two sets are superordinate and subordinate sets with their properties or attributes stored.These properties are logically related and hierarchically organised.

Stroboscopic motion

the apparent motion of a series of separate stimuli occurring in close consecutive order, as in motion pictures

Autokinetic effect

this is where a small spot of light (projected onto a screen) in a dark room will appear to move, even though it is still (i.e. it is a visual illusion)

Phi phenomenon

is the optical illusion of perceiving continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession.

Motion parallax

is a monocular depth cue arising from the relative velocities of objects moving across the retinae of a moving person. this is a change in position caused by the movement of the viewer.

Higher-level awareness

uses mental effort.

Lower-level awareness

states of consciousness that require little attention and do not

interfere with other activities

Altered state of consciousness

any state of consciousness that deviate from normal waking

consciousness, in terms of marked differences in our level of awareness, perceptions,

memories, thinking, emotions, behaviors, and sense of time, place, and self-control

Subconscious awareness

part of the mind that is not

currently in focal awareness.

daydreaming

lies between active consciousness and dreaming while asleep. Mind wandering is the most well known type of this. It can be useful in that in this state a person may be making plans, solving problems, etc

What do you call the historical, economic, social, and cultural factors that influence mental processes and behavior?

Context

*Everything that people think, say, and do is affected and influenced by these factors. Hence, context must be taken into account in psychology

Who do most historians credit with establishing the first scientific laboratory dedicated to studying behavior?

Wilhelm Wundt

*opened in Leipzig in 1879

One evening, Genie jumps into a pool and shivers at the coldness of the water. After five minutes, however, she has gotten used to the cold and is "ignoring" it as if she does laps across the pool. This is an example of what?

habituation/sensory adaptation

*diminished sensitivity to a stimulus due to prolonged stimulation

Howard is an expert wine-taster. He can tell vintage wines apart with just single drops upon his tongue, no matter how similar the samples taste. This demonstrates

difference threshold/just noticeable difference

*smallest difference in stimulation required to discriminate one stimulus from another 50% of the time

Which of the following EEG patterns occur in awake individuals?

alpha waves --> usually occur in individuals who are in a relaxed or drowsy state

beta waves --> arise during high frequency electrical activity in the brain such as during periods of concentration

As a boy, John was bitten by a large red ant and developed a phobia for ants. However, he also developed a fear of all insects. In classical conditioning, this is an example of what?

generalization

*tendency of a new stimulus - similar to an original conditioned stimulus - to produce a response similar to the conditioned response

Generalization also occurs in operant conditioning

giving the same response to similar stimuli

e.x. an infant who has been taught to call a four-legged hairy animal "dog" may call a horse "dog"

*stimulus generalization

Classical conditioning emphasizes the relationship between ____ and ____; operant conditioning emphasizes the relationship between _____ and ____.

stimulus; behavior

behavior; consequence/rewards

Classical conditioning

*tends to focus on the stimuli that precedes the behavior

point of interest is the resulting behavior upon application of a stimulus

best at explaining how neutral stimuli can become linked to unlearned involuntary responses (not effective in explaining voluntary behaviors)

Operant conditioning

*stimuli that govern the behavior follow the behavior

form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the behavior's occurrence

Which style of parenting is most likely to raise children who lack self-control and who always expect to get their way?

indulgent parenting

Indulgent parenting

style wherein parents are involved with their child; however, the parents place few demands and restrictions on the child --> social incompetence and lack of self-control

Authoritarian parenting

restrictive, controlling, and demanding style

given little opportunity to disagree and is expect to follow without question

Neglectful parenting

style wherein the parents are uninvolved in the child's life

child tends to show poor self-control and does not handle independence well

Authoritative parenting

encourages a child to be independent without neglecting to place limits and controls on behaviors

parents tend to be nurturant, and good communication is encouraged

child --> socially-competent, self-reliant, and responsible children

Which of the following personality theories generally tends to be pessimistic about human nature?

psychoanalytic theory

Psychoanalytic theory

tends to view people as being purely driven by unconscious sexual and aggressive instincts that follow the pleasure principle (always seek pleasure, avoid pain)

Little attention is given to conscious decisions of the ego (rational mind) and the superego (the morality dimension of the mind)

Trait theory and behavioral theory

tend to be neutral about human nature

Humanistic theory and cognitive social learning theory

tend to be more optimistic about the nature of people

According to Freud, which structure of personality consists of instincts and is completely unconscious?

id

Freud believed there are two basic drives that guide and shape human behavior. What did he call these two drives?

eros and thanatos

*reflection of the pleasure principle, which drives people towards seeking pleasure and avoiding pain

eros

reflects the sexual drive

thanatos

reflects the aggressive survival instinct

Shane has strong aggressive - even violent - tendencies. To prevent himself from possibly doing harm to others, he chooses to engage in American football and boxing as outlets. What defense mechanism did he use?

sublimation

defense mechanisms

ways through which the ego deals with conflict by distorting reality

these are unconscious methods of dealing with conflict; by distorting reality, the ego protects itself from anxiety

sublimation

ego replaces an unacceptable impulse with a socially approved course of action