PSYCH 150 - Test 1

3 main domains of development

physical, cognitive, social/emotional

physical development

development involving the body's physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep

cognitive development

the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory

socioemotional development

changes in emotions, social skills, relationships, and personality

lifespan perspective of development

human development is a lifelong process that involves both growth and decline

multidimensional

Development involves multiple aspects like biological, cognitive, and socioemotional.

multidirectional

Growth and decline occur simultaneously at different points in life.

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Contextual

Development is influenced by various settings, such as family, culture, and historical periods.

Multidisciplinary

Development is studied across various disciplines (psychology, sociology, etc.).

normative influences on development

Normative influences are typical, or expected events that affect most people in a certain way.

age-graded influences, history-graded influences and sociocultural-graded influences

Age-graded influences

events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last

examples)

-Puberty (a biological change at adolescence).

-Graduation from school (common milestone at a certain age).

-Retirement (typically occurs in later adulthood).

history-graded influences

Events tied to a specific time period that affect a generation.

examples)

-The Great Depression (affected generations growing up during that time).

-The rise of the internet and technology (impacted those growing up in the 1990s and 2000s).

Non-Normative Influences

Non-normative influences are unexpected or unique events that have a significant impact on an individual's development. These events are not experienced by most people.

examples)

-A child experiencing a serious illness or accident.

-Winning a lottery or becoming a celebrity.

-Experiencing the death of a parent at a young age.

What are metatheories and how do assumptions influence developmental research?

Metatheories: These are the perspectives or assumptions that developmental psychologists hold about development.

Assumptions:

-Can be conscious or unconscious.

-Influence how research is conducted and interpreted.

-Are often held and defended by researchers.

-Are difficult for many research studies to challenge or dispute.

psychodynamic theory

Freudian theory that unconscious forces determine behavior

What are some assumptions in development and what do they mean?

Assumptions in developmental theories often focus on how development happens and what factors influence it.

-Continuity vs. Discontinuity

-Nature vs. Nurture

-Universality vs. Context-Specific Development

-Active vs. Passive Development

- stability vs. change

arguments for continuity

Development is a smooth, continuous process where early life experiences shape later stages.

Example: Skills learned in early childhood (e.g., walking or language) gradually improve rather than changing drastically.

arguments for discontinuity

Development happens in distinct stages, where individuals change in significant, qualitative ways.

Example: Piaget's stages of cognitive development, where children move from concrete thinking to abstract reasoning at a particular stage.

arguments for nature

Development is driven by genetic inheritance and biological factors.

Example: Hereditary traits such as intelligence, temperament, and predispositions to certain behaviors.

arguments for nurture

Development is shaped by environmental influences like upbringing, culture, and experiences.

Example: A child's language development is influenced by how much they are spoken to and the environment around them.

Tabula Rasa

John Locke's concept of the mind as a blank sheet ultimately bombarded by sense impressions that, aided by human reasoning, formulate ideas.

arguments for universality

Development is the same for everyone regardless of culture or context.

Example: The stages of cognitive development in Piaget's theory are assumed to be universal for all children.

arguments for context-specific

Development varies across cultures, individuals, and environments, and may not follow a universal pattern.

Example: Parenting styles and expectations vary significantly across cultures, influencing how children develop socially and emotionally.

behaviorist view of active vs. passive

humans are passive in

their development and

just reacting to stimuli

cognitive developmentalist view of active vs. passive

humans are active in their development, views on the world are constructed to explain experiences

arguments for stability

Personality is rooted in the characteristics someone exhibits as a young child

arguments for change

Personality is

malleable throughout a

person's life based on

their experiences,

social, and cultural

forces

metatheories in human development

- maturational

- mechanistic

- organismic

- contextualistic

mechanistic development

Development is fixed, passive, and driven by environmental factors

maturational development

Development is predetermined by genetics and passive, reacting to environment

Organismic Development

People are active in their own development and create development based on

environment

Contextualistic Development

views development as a dynamic dance between the person and environment, where both influence and change each other, shaped by societal, cultural, and biological factors

psychosocial development

Main Theme: Development is influenced by psychosocial conflicts at different stages of life, which must be resolved for healthy psychological growth.

Example: Trust vs. Mistrust in infancy, Integrity vs. Despair in adulthood.

Behaviorism (skinner, watson)

Main Theme: Behavior is learned through interaction with the environment, emphasizing reinforcement, punishment, and observable behaviors.

Example: Skinner's operant conditioning, where behavior is shaped by rewards and consequences.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Main Theme: People learn by observing others, and this learning is influenced by the environment and social interactions. Focuses on modeling and self-regulation.

Example: Bandura's Bobo doll experiment, showing children imitating aggressive behavior.

Cognitive Theories (Piaget, Vygotsky)

Main Theme: Development involves the stages of cognitive growth, where individuals actively construct knowledge through interactions with the world.

Example: Piaget's stages of cognitive development, such as the shift from concrete to abstract thinking.

Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky)

Main Theme: Social interaction and culture are central to cognitive development. Learning is seen as a collaborative process influenced by language, cultural tools, and community.

Children had four basic components:

• Attention

• Memory

• Sensation

• Perception

Example: Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), where learning occurs with guidance.

Information Processing Theory

Main Theme: Development is seen as the processing of information, with a focus on how the brain encodes, stores, and retrieves information over time.

Example: Children's ability to solve problems and their working memory improves with age and experience.

Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)

Ecological Systems Theory, developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, emphasizes the influence of various environmental systems on human development. It divides the environment into different layers that interact with each other and affect the individual.

Microsystem

- Individuals direct environment

• individuals whom with a person interact heavily with

• Cognitive and biological state of individual

Mesosystem

Organizational structures (family,

school, religion)

Exosystem

Contexts of community such as shared

values, economy, etc.

Macrosystem

Cultural elements such as global

economics, wars, technological trends, values, societal

responses

Chronosystem

Historical context such as generations

Bioecological Model (Brofenbrenner)

same as ecological systems theory except also emphasizes the biological and psychological characteristics of the individual, such as genetic influences, temperament, and personal experiences.

Longitudinal Design

Tracks the same individuals over a long period to observe changes in development.

benefits and drawbacks of longitudinal design

Benefits: Provides insights into how individuals change over time and can suggest cause-and-effect relationships.

Drawbacks: Time-consuming and expensive, with potential participant dropout (attrition) affecting results.

Cross-Sectional Design

Compares different age groups at one point in time to identify developmental differences.

benefits and drawbacks of Cross-Sectional Design

Benefits: Quick and cost-effective, with no participant attrition.

Drawbacks: Can't establish causality and may be influenced by generational differences (cohort effects).

Cross-Sequential Design

Combines longitudinal and cross-sectional designs by studying multiple age groups over time.

benefits and drawbacks of Cross-Sequential Design

Benefits: Offers insights into changes across ages and time, minimizing cohort effects.

Drawbacks: Complex, time-consuming, and expensive to execute.

comparison between Longitudinal Design, Cross-Sectional Design, Cross-Sequential Design

Longitudinal: Best for understanding individual change over time but requires time and resources.

Cross-Sectional: Quick and easy but limited in causality and individual tracking.

Cross-Sequential: Balances strengths of both designs but is resource-intensive and complex.

Natural/Field Observations

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Reactivity: researcher can influence participant behavior

Laboratory Observations

• Lab setting to observe natural behaviors

• Control over setting and some confounding factors

• Lack of generalizability to everyday life

Video or Audio Observations

• Use recordings of every day experiences

• Reduce reactivity

• Less data is able

to be collected

Experimental Research

Involves manipulating independent variables to observe effects on dependent variables, often in a lab or controlled setting.

benefits and drawbacks of Experimental Research

Benefits: Allows for clear cause-and-effect conclusions due to controlled conditions.

Drawbacks: May lack ecological validity if conducted in a lab; can be unethical in some situations (e.g., manipulations that may harm participants).

Observational Research

Involves watching and recording behavior without manipulating any variables.

benefits and drawbacks of Observational Research

Benefits: Naturalistic and unobtrusive, providing insights into real-world behavior.

Drawbacks: Cannot establish causality, and observer bias may influence findings.

Case Study

What it is: In-depth study of a single individual or small group, often focusing on rare or unique cases.

Benefits: Provides deep insights into complex or unusual phenomena.

Drawbacks: Limited generalizability, can be influenced by researcher bias.

Community Partners

What it is: Involves collaboration with community groups or organizations to conduct research.

Benefits: Builds practical, real-world connections and often involves participatory research methods.

Drawbacks: May introduce biases or conflicts of interest due to involvement of external stakeholders.

Interviews

What it is: Involves asking participants direct questions to gather detailed qualitative data.

Benefits: Provides rich, detailed insights into individual experiences and perspectives.

Drawbacks: Can be time-consuming, subject to interviewer bias, and not easily generalizable.

What are the key ethical requirements in psychological research?

Informed Consent: Participants must understand the study and agree voluntarily.

Confidentiality: Personal data must be protected.

Voluntary Participation: Participants can withdraw anytime without penalty.

Protection from Harm: No physical or psychological harm should occur.

Debriefing: Provide complete information post-study, especially if deception is used.

Minimizing Deception: Deception should be minimized and justified.

Competence of Researchers: Researchers must be properly trained.

Ethical Treatment of Vulnerable Populations: Extra care for at-risk groups.

Fairness and Equity: Treat participants fairly, without discrimination.

Genotype

genetic makeup of an organism. It refers to the specific combination of alleles (versions of a gene) an individual possesses.

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits. Result from the interaction of the genotype with the environment.

Behavioral Genetics

Behavioral genetics aims to understand how much of our behavior is influenced by our genes versus our environment (nature vs. nurture).

Ethics in Psych

IRB approval is required to conduct research with human subjects

• Institutional Review Board assesses research protocol

• IACUCs are required when conducting research with animal subjects

• Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee

Passive Genotype Environment Correlations

Children passively inherit genes and environment provided

Evocative Genotype Environment Correlations

Social environment reacts to

individuals based on characteristics

Active Genotype Environment Correlations

Individuals seek out environments that support

genetic tendencies

Epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Epigenetics and Preconception

Health and lifestyle factors of parents impacts fetal development and birthrates

Paternal Impact on Pregnancy

A father's age, genetics, nutrition, and lifestyle affect pregnancy; advanced age increases preeclampsia risk, impacts placental weight & embryo formation, while poor diet (low protein, high lipids) and sperm health influence fetal development.

germinal stage (0-2 weeks)

the 2-week period of prenatal development where fertilization occurs, forming a zygote, which undergoes rapid cell division and implants into the uterus.

Embryonic Stage (3-8 weeks)

Major organ systems, brain, spinal cord, and heart begin forming; the embryo is highly sensitive to teratogens.

Fetal Stage (9 weeks-birth)

Growth continues, organs mature, movement begins, and by the third trimester, the fetus can respond to stimuli and survive outside the womb.

Age of Viability

The age (~24 weeks) when a fetus may survive outside the womb with intensive medical care; survival rates depend on medical advancements, with risks of heart, lung, and neurological issues—the youngest surviving preterm baby was 21 weeks.

teratogens

Harmful substances or factors that can cause birth defects or developmental issues during prenatal development. Examples include alcohol (Fetal Alcohol Syndrome), drugs, radiation, infections (e.g., rubella, Zika virus), and toxic chemicals. Impacts depend on timing, dosage, and genetic susceptibility, affecting brain development, organ formation, and overall growth.

Brain Development

Begins Week 3 with stem cell differentiation on the neural plate, forming the neural tube. By Week 8, it differentiates into the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. Neurogenesis is mostly complete by Month 5 (except the hippocampus). By Month 6, neurons finish migrating to the cerebral cortex, and dendrites, axons, and neural networks begin forming.

Proximodistal growth

Starts at the center of the body and outward

cephalocaudal growth

at the head before the rest of the body, moving downwards

Mass-to-Specific Growth

• Gross motor skills develop before fine

motor skills

• Often times will see infants reaching before

they can grasp

Why Study Infant Reflexes?

Reflexes are automatic responses that indicate neurological health and development. They help assess brain and spinal cord function, detect abnormalities or delays, and show how infants adapt for survival (e.g., rooting and sucking reflex for feeding). Reflexes typically disappear as the brain matures and voluntary movements take over.

sleep in infants as a biopsychosocial process

• Biological

• Psychological

• Social Processes

Positive correlation between sleep, memory, cognitive

development, and executive functioning in infants

Differing Parenting Methods for Sleep

Co-sleeping promotes bonding and easier breastfeeding but may have safety risks; sleep training (e.g., Cry It Out) fosters independence but can cause stress; No Tears Method is gentler, focusing on soothing techniques; Bedtime routines help establish calming, consistent sleep habits—methods vary by culture and goals (attachment vs. independence).

important for a shift between caregiver soothing and self-soothing

Breastfeeding

Benefits: Provides optimal nutrition, strengthens immune system, promotes bonding, and may reduce the risk of allergies, obesity, and infections.

Drawbacks: Can be time-consuming, may cause discomfort for the mother, and can be difficult if the mother has low milk supply or returns to work.

Formula Feeding

Benefits: Convenient, allows others to feed the baby, provides consistent nutrition, and allows more flexibility for the mother.

Drawbacks: Lacks the immune benefits of breast milk, more expensive, and requires sterilization of bottles and equipment.

Synaptogenesis

The process of forming new synapses (connections between neurons) in the brain, which happens rapidly in infancy and early childhood. It supports cognitive development and learning.

Synaptic Pruning

The process of eliminating unused or weaker synaptic connections to improve brain efficiency. This occurs as the brain becomes more specialized, typically in early childhood and adolescence.

Schizophrenia: over pruning

Epilepsy: under pruning

Myelination

The process of forming myelin (a fatty layer around nerve fibers) that speeds up neural communication. It begins in the fetal stage, continues through childhood, and is crucial for motor skills, coordination, and cognitive function.

Strange Situation Test

The Strange Situation Test is a structured observational study designed by Mary Ainsworth to assess infant attachment styles. It involves a series of separations and reunions between an infant and their caregiver, and it observes how the child responds to these situations. The test consists of eight short episodes, including when the caregiver leaves and returns, and when the infant is left with a stranger.

Secure Attachment

Causes: Results from responsive, consistent caregiving, where the child feels safe to explore and trusts that their caregiver will respond when needed.

Features: Infant is upset when caregiver leaves but is easily comforted upon return. Shows a balance between exploring and seeking comfort.

Later in Life: Likely to have healthy relationships, emotional regulation, and trust in others.

Insecure-Avoidant Attachment

Causes: Often results from unresponsive or emotionally distant caregiving, where the child learns to suppress needs for comfort.

Features: Infant shows little to no distress when the caregiver leaves and avoids contact upon return.

Later in Life: May have difficulty trusting others, and avoid emotional closeness.

Insecure-Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment

Causes: Often results from inconsistent caregiving, where the caregiver is sometimes responsive, sometimes not.

Features: Infant is extremely distressed when the caregiver leaves, but angry or resistant when they return. Child may have difficulty calming down.

Later in Life: May show clinginess, anxiety, and have difficulty managing emotions or trusting others.

Disorganized Attachment

Causes: Often results from frightening or abusive caregiving, where the child is unsure of how to react to the caregiver.

Features: Infant shows confused or contradictory behaviors (e.g., approaching but avoiding the caregiver) due to fear or confusion.

Later in Life: May struggle with relationships, self-regulation, and may experience emotional difficulties.

What are the evolutionary causes of different attachment styles?

Secure Attachment: Evolved for protection and exploration, ensuring survival and emotional well-being.

Insecure-Avoidant: Developed when caregivers were emotionally distant, leading infants to become self-reliant and avoid emotional closeness.

Insecure-Ambivalent: Forms in inconsistent caregiving environments, leading to clinginess and anxiety to gain attention.

Disorganized Attachment: Evolved in dangerous environments where caregivers were both comforting and frightening, causing confusion and maladaptive survival strategies.

Contact Comfort

The physical comfort an infant gets from a caregiver, crucial for emotional security and attachment.

Secure Base

The caregiver acts as a safe point that allows the infant to explore the world while knowing they can return for comfort and safety.

How is attachment in adults evaluated, and is it fixed?

Evaluation: Measured with questionnaires focusing on childhood relationships and emotional processing.

Research Findings: Longitudinal studies show attachment anxieties decrease with age, with major life events influencing attachment changes.

Not Fixed: Attachment styles can change due to life events; however, many adults maintain a stable attachment style over time.