BIO exam 3

Disinfectants are chemical agents that are typically applied to the patients skin (tissues). (T/F)

False, inanimate objects

Inhibition of the cell wall synthesis leads to cell death since the cell wall protects the microorganisms from increasing size beyond it capacity. (T/F)

False, cells can burst due to internal osmotic pressure

Microflora disruption happens mostly with narrow spectrum antibiotics. (T/F)

False, broad spectrum antibiotics

Disinfection

Reducing the number of pathogenic organisms on objects or in materials so that they pose no threat of disease

Broad spectrum antibiotics are the best type of treatment when the identity of the organism causing the infection is unknown. (T/F)

True, increases chances that the organism will be vulnerable to the drug

Antibiotics are the only treatment available to kill bacteria. (T/F)

True (only bacteria)

The primary antibody response is characterized by antibody production that takes hours and up to weeks to develop while the secondary response is faster thanks to the T and B memory cells. (T/F)

True (antibody response)

Immunity

refers to the capacity to recognize and defend against infections agents and other foreign substances (antigens)

Innate genetic

everyone has similar innate a system which provides non-specific, the hereditary defense which is a similar response to all pathogens

innate Adaptive

respond to a particular agent called antigens (found in microbes and cells) - it becomes more effective at defending human cells after the first invasion thanks to memory cells; provides specific-non-hereditary defense and protection after exposure to a specific pathogen

Five Types of Innate Defense

(1) barriers, (2) cellular defenses, (3) inflammation response, (4) fever response, (5) molecular defenses

(1) Barriers: Physical

skin or mucosa

(1) Barriers: Mechanical

hair, mucus, coughing, sneezing, vomiting, diarrhea, tears, saliva, urine flow, secretions

(1) Barriers: Chemical

**Salt: Sweat has watery-salty liquid -- pH-acid: Sebum, Stomach acid -- Lysozyme: Cleaves covalent linkage between sugars and peptidoglycan, Gram+, Tears, saliva, mucus -- Transferrin: Protein present in blood plasma that binds any free iron -- Lactoferrin: Protein present in saliva, mucus, milk that binds any free iron -- Defensins: Found in mucus and fluids kills pathogens by forming pores in their  membranes**

(1) Barriers

block the pathogens from entering

(2) Cellular Defenses

cells that engulf invading microorganisms

(2) Cellular Defenses: dendritic cells

immune cell that can surround and kill microorganisms, ingest foreign material, and remove dead cells -- antigen presentation in lymph node

(2) Cellular Defenses: macrophages

cells attack by phagocytosis and release chemicals that help initiate an inflammatory response

Phagocytosis Stage 1: Find

receptors toll-like recognizes cells, chemotaxis

Phagocytosis Stage 2: Absorption

ability to bind to specific molecules on the surface of the microbe

Phagocytosis Stage 3: Ingestion

engulf the microbe

Phagocytosis Stage 4 (Final): Digestion

digestive enzymes

(3) Inflammation Response Cardinal Signs

(1) Calor: Heat, increase in  temperature, (2) Rubor: redness, (3) Tumor: swelling, (4) Dolor: pain at the infected or injured site

(3) Inflammation Response Harmful Effects

(1) Edema (swelling) in the brain can  lead to brain damage, (2) Can prevent breathing if constricts  the airways in the lungs, (3) More oxygen and nutrients for microbes due to vasodilation

(4) Fever Response

elevation of body temperature to kill invading agent and/or inactivate their toxic products

(4) Fever Response Causes

Most often caused by Pyrogens which can release Endogenous or Exogenous chemicals

(4) Fever Response Benefits

(1) **Reduced microbial growth, (2) Toxin inactivation, (3) Increased metabolism and immune cell responses, (4) Increased phagocytosis, (5) Interferon, (6) Lysosomal activity, (7) Rest for patient**

Endogenous

Chemical release by macrophages and circulate via  the blood to the hypothalamus -- In 20 min fever presents itself

Exogenous

Exotoxins and endotoxins from microbes, which  cause more endogenous pyrogen

(4) Fever Response General Info

(1) Reset of body’s thermostat, hypothalamus (part of brain), (2) Normal range: 36.1 to 37.5 C (96.98 – 99.5 F), (3) Fever: oral 37.8 C (100.4 F), rectal 38.4 C (101.12 F), (4) Usually when accompany by infectious disease does not  exceed 40 C (104), higher than 40 C could be dangerous  for the body, (5) If it reaches 43 C (109.4 F) death usually occurs

(5) Molecular Defense: Interferon

(1) one virus prevented the infection by another virus for a time, (2) there are many types of interferon, (3) it is species specific but not virus specific, (4) Therapeutic Uses that FDA approved for Hairy cell leukemia, genital warts, cancer

(5) Molecular Defense: Complement System Info

(1) set of more than 20 large regulatory proteins that play a key role in host defense, (2) it is not non-specific but can be activated by immune reactions

(5) Molecular Defense: Complement System Function

(1) enhance phagocytosis by phagocytes, (2) lyse microorganism directly, (3) generate peptide fragments that regulate inflammation and immune response

Humoral

(1) activated when pathogens are outside of cells, (2) Its carried out mainly by B cells, which could be B plasma cells (Antibody producing) and/or B memory cells (for secondary response) (3) B cells are produced and differentiated in the bone marrow, (4) B Plasma cells make antibodies, (5) B memory cells are created if T-helper cell activation

Cell-Mediated

(1) activated when pathogens/cancer are inside of cells, (2) Its carried out by mainly the T cells which have different types, (3) T cells are produced in the bone marrow and differentiated in the thymus. 

Humoral Active

an individual’s own immune \n system makes antibodies

Humoral Passive

another organism makes the antibodies. Those antibodies only protects the host for a short time and then disappear

Humoral Active Natural

Obtained by having a specific disease (exposure to agent)

Humoral Active Artificial

Obtained by recovering the antigen by the injection of a vaccine or immune serum

Humoral Passive Natural

Obtained from antibodies transferred to a fetus \n across the placenta or to an infant in colostrum and breast milk

Humoral Passive Artificial

Produced when antibodies made by other hosts are introduced into a new host

Adaptive Primary Response

\n (1) B cells recognize an antigen for first time, (2) B cells divide to form plasma cells, which begin to synthesize antibodies, (3) In a few days antibodies shows in the blood plasma and \n increases concentration from 1 to 10 weeks, (4) Create B memory cells that persist in lymphoid tissue

Adaptive Secondary Response

\n (1) The presence of B and T memory cells makes the \n response much faster (2) Some B memory cells divide making plasma cells

Cell-Mediated: T helper dependent

B cell activation depends on T helper cells contact and it causes more B cell activation and B memory cells

Cell-Mediated: T helper independent

B cell activation does not depend on T helper cells contact. Usually B memory cells are not formed

Cell-Mediated: T memory

persist in lymphoid tissue, ready for secondary response

Cell-Mediated: Cytotoxic T cells (Some Natural Killer cells)

(1) Nonspecifically kills cells infected by viruses and cancer cells, (2) Cells secrete cytotoxic proteins that trigger apoptosis (programmed cell death)

Antimicrobial

A special group of chemotherapeutic agents used to treat diseases caused by microbes

Prophylactic

Treatment used for prevention of disease

Sterilization

Killing or removal of __all__ microorganisms in a material or an object

Selective toxicity

Must harm microbes without causing significant damage to the host

Therapeutic level

successfully eliminates the pathogenic organisms if the level is maintained over a period of time

Toxic level

causes host damage

Activity spectrum

Range of different microbes against which an antimicrobial agent acts

Broad spectrum

When the microbe is unknown

Why would broad spectrum be more beneficial for an emergency treatment?

Useful when a patient is seriously ill with an infection caused by an unidentified organism where it increases the chances that the key organism will be susceptible to the drug

Narrow spectrum

When the microbe is known

Why would narrow spectrum be more beneficial for the general microflora of the patient in a non-emergency situation?

It minimizes the destruction of the host’s microflora and decreases the likelihood that organisms will develop drug resistance

What are the broad spectrums on the chart?

longer lines that can cover 2 or more types of bacteria

What are the narrow spectrums on the chart?

short lines that can cover 1 type of bacteria

Toxicity

When they do have selected toxicity some antimicrobials do exert toxic effects on the patients (host) receiving them

Microflora disruption

found more in broad spectrum antibiotics -- microflora mainly found in skin, digestive, respiratory, and urogenital tracts -- organisms resistant to antimicrobial agent invade the space leading to superinfection, but microflora can be restored by eating yogurts

Allergy

a condition in which the body’s immune system responds to a foreign substance, usually a protein --Can be limited to skin rashes and itching, or life threatening

Principles for controlling/reducing microbial growth

(1) Fewer organisms require less time and less concentration to be killed, (2) Every organism reacts different to every chemical, (3) Consider the time, temperature, pH, that you use the chemical at, (4) Concentration: Higher concentration kills cells, Lower concentration inhibits growth, Exceptions in Alcohol since it requires at least 1% water

(1) Evaluating Effectiveness: Phenol coefficient

all antimicrobials are assigned a phenol coefficient value that it is higher or lower than the phenol value of 1.0 which is the standard. The higher the number the more efficient the chemical is

(2) Evaluating Effectiveness: Filter diffusion (Kirby Bauer

every microbe is allowed to grow while being exposed to an antimicrobial. The zone of inhibition is measured to determine if the microbe is resistant (able to grow) or sensitive (unable to grow) to the antimicrobial

(3) Evaluating Effectiveness: Thermal Death Time

Time required to eliminate ALL of the organisms in sample at a specific temperature.

(4) Evaluating Effectiveness: Decimal Reduction Time

Time required to eliminate 90% of the organisms in sample at a specific temperature

Types of Chemical agents

(1) disinfectants, (2) antiseptics, (3) sanitizers, (4) germicide

(3) Types of Chemical agents: sanitizers

typically used on __food-handling equipment and eating utensils to reduce bacterial numbers__ so as to meet public health standards. Sanitization may simple refer to through washing with only soap or detergent

(4) Types of Chemical agents: germicide

__capable of killing microbes__ (germs) rapidly

(2) Types of Chemical agents: antiseptics

Chemical agents that are typically applied to __living tissue__

(1) Types of Chemical agents: disinfectants

Chemical agents that are typically applied to __inanimate objects__

Classification of the chemical agents

(1) bactericide, (2) bacteriostatic, (3) viricide, (4) sporocide

(1) Classification of the chemical agents: bactericide

kills __bacteria,__ Most of this agents do not kill spores

(2) Classification of the chemical agents: bacteriostatic

__inhibits the growth of bacteria__

(3) Classification of the chemical agents: viricide

inactivates viruses

(4) Classification of the chemical agents: sporocide

kills bacterial endospores or __fungal spores__

Drug Target Sites: Bacteria

Inhibition of cell wall synthesis, Disruption of cell membrane function, Inhibition of protein synthesis, Effects on Nucleic acids, Action as antimetabolite

Action as antimetabolite

essential for cellular growth and survival, without them normal functions cannot be done

Inhibition of cell wall synthesis

cells can burst due to internal osmotic pressure

Disruption of cell membrane function

proteins can be altered which will inhibit their function, dissolve lipids, reduce surface tension

Inhibition of protein synthesis

prevents cell from carrying out normal functions

Effects on Nucleic acids

cause abnormal bodily functions or illnesses/inhibits its synthesis

Drug Target Sites: Viruses

Altering DNA/RNA and Denaturing proteins to inactivate virus to inhibit their replication

Drug Target Sites: Fungi

Inhibition of cell wall synthesis, Disruption of cell membrane function, treatment can cause toxic side effects

Drug Target Sites: Protozoans

Proteins – use to control specific parasite with some unpleasant/toxic side effects

Drug Target Sites: Worms/Antihelminth

Proteins – use to treat parasitic worms where Some side effects include fetal damage, affect human nervous system and cause convulsions (especially in children)

(1) Classes of antimicrobial: Soap

Target: cell membrane, proteins, mechanical removal -- Usage: –Remove/kill microbes, oil substances and dirt

(2) Classes of antimicrobial: Phenols

Target: Disrupt membranes, denature proteins and inactivate enzymes -- Usage: disinfect surfaces and destroy discarded cultures

(3) Classes of antimicrobial: Dyes

Target: may interfere with replication or blocks cell wall synthesis -- Usage: clean wounds and infections

(4) Classes of antimicrobial: Pasteurization

Target: denatures proteins by changing temperatures of the solution -- Usage: Kills pathogens in milk, dairy products and beer

(5) Classes of antimicrobial: Osmotic Control

Target: removes water from microbes -- Usage: prevent spoilage of foods such as pickles and jellies

Student Research: Prokaryotic Story

A child went up to pet a cat and got multiple scratches when his hand got closer. A few hours later, the scratch marks were swelling, red, painful and warm to the touch.

Student Research: Prokaryotic Portal of Entry & Exit

Entry: Skin to bloodstream – Scratch or bite wound -- Exit: None, a person cannot catch it from an infected person, only from scratches or bites by infected animals like cats and dogs

Student Research: Prokaryotic Disease Name

Cellulitis

Student Research: Prokaryotic Organism Name

*Pasturella multocida*

Student Research: Prokaryotic Morphology, Arrangement, & Gram staining

coccobacillus, plemorphic (grows in multiple shapes and sizes), Gram-negative

Student Research: Prokaryotic in Human Microflora (Y/N) & Location

No. Usually found in nasopharynx and upper respiratory tract of the cats, but can be gained from other animals like dogs.

Student Research: Prokaryotic 2 Barriers

(1): Physical: skin, (2): Chemical: salt