PSYC 101 Midterm

empirical method

method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities

ology

suffix that denotes “scientific study of”

psyche

Greek word for soul

psychology

scientific study of the mind and behavior

William James

The first American psychologist, and he was a proponent of functionalism. This particular perspective focused on how mental activities served as adaptive responses to an organism’s environment. Also relied on introspection; however, his research approach also incorporated more objective measures as well.

Wilhelm Wundt

Was a structuralist (structuralism), which meant he believed that our cognitive experience was best understood by breaking that experience into its component parts. He thought this was best accomplished by introspection.

Introspection → trained individuals, objectively observe their conscious experience, measure reaction times under different conditions

Sigmund Freud

Believed that understanding the unconscious mind was absolutely critical to understand conscious behavior. This was especially true for individuals that he saw who suffered from various hysterias and neuroses. He relied on dream analysis, slips of the tongue (_______ slips), and free association as means to access the unconscious.

Unconscious mind → wants, desires, behaviours (sexual nature)

Early childhood experiences were important

Psychoanalytic theory remained a dominant force in clinical psychology for several decades.

GOOD: Highlight importance of childhood experiences, unconscious vs conscious, motivations can cause psychological conflict

BAD: Theory could not be proven false (unfalsifiable), placed too much emphasis on sex

Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler

Gestalt psychology was very influential in Europe and takes a holistic view of an individual and his experiences. These three German scientists introduced America to Gestalt ideas. Some of the principles of Gestalt psychology are still very influential in the study of sensation and perception.

Sensory experience can be broken down into individual parts

The “whole” is what the individual experiences as perception

Gave way to behaviourism

behaviorism

focus on observing and controlling behavior

Consciousness = flawed

Primary mechanism: learning

humanism

perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans

Ivan Pavlov

Russian behaviorist (behaviorism) physiologist

Studied a form of learning behavior called a conditioned reflex (“classical conditioning”), in which an animal or human produced a reflex (unconscious) response to a stimulus and, over time, was conditioned to produce the response to a different stimulus that the experimenter associated with the original stimulus. The reflex he worked with was salivation in response to the presence of food.

John B. Watson

American behaviorist psychologist

He thought that the study of consciousness was flawed. Because he believed that objective analysis of the mind was impossible, he preferred to focus directly on observable behavior and try to bring that behavior under control.

Major contributor to behaviorism

B. F. Skinner

American behaviorist psychologist.

Concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences. Therefore, he spoke of reinforcement and punishment as major factors in driving behavior.

Invented the operant conditioning chamber (S_____ box)

Abraham Maslow

American humanist (humanism) psychologist

Best known for proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior. He asserted that so long as basic needs necessary for survival were met (e.g., food, water, shelter), higher-level needs (e.g., social needs) would begin to motivate behavior.

Major contributor to humanistic psychology

Carl Rogers

American humanist psychologist

Emphasized the potential for good that exists within all people. He used a therapeutic technique known as client-centered therapy in helping his clients deal with problematic issues that resulted in their seeking psychotherapy.

He believed that a therapist needed to display three features to maximize the effectiveness of this particular approach: unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy

Noam Chomsky

American linguist

Influential figure in The Cognitive Revolution

He believed that psychology’s focus on behavior was short-sighted and that the field had to re-incorporate mental functioning into its purview if it were to offer any meaningful contributions to understanding behavior.

Cognitive revolution placed emphasis on mental processes

functionalism

focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment

Darwin’s theory of evolution

Interested in the mind as a whole, rather than the individual parts

Introspection

introspection

process by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break it into its component parts

psychoanalytic theory

focus on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior

structuralism

understanding the conscious experience through introspection

Basic building blocks → Thoughts, feelings, memories, experiences

American Psychological Association

professional organization representing psychologists in the United States

biopsychology

study of how biology influences behavior

biopsychosocial model

perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual’s health

clinical psychology

area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior

cognitive psychology

study of cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to experiences and actions

counseling psychology

area of psychology that focuses on improving emotional, social, vocational, and other aspects of the lives of psychologically healthy individuals

developmental psychology

scientific study of development across a lifespan

forensic psychology

area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system

personality psychology

study of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique

personality trait

consistent pattern of thought and behavior

sport and exercise psychology

area of psychology that focuses on the interactions between mental and emotional factors and physical performance in sports, exercise, and other activities

deductive reasoning

results are predicted based on a general premise

empirical

grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing

fact

objective and verifiable observation, established using evidence collected through empirical research

falsifiable

able to be disproven by experimental results

hypothesis

tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables

inductive reasoning

conclusions are drawn from observations

opinion

personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate

theory

well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

archival research

method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships

attrition

reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time

clinical or case study

observational research study focusing on one or a few people

cross-sectional research

compares multiple segments of a population at a single time

generalize

inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population

inter-rater reliability

measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event

longitudinal research

studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time

naturalistic observation

observation of behavior in its natural setting

observer bias

when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations

population

overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in

sample

subset of individuals selected from the larger population

survey

list of questions to be answered by research participants—given as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally—allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of people

cause-and-effect relationship

changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design

confirmation bias

tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs

confounding variable

unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables

control group

serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study—by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups

correlation

relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does

correlation coefficient

number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r

dependent variable

variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had

double-blind study

experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments

experimental group

group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance

experimenter bias

researcher expectations skew the results of the study

illusory correlation

seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists

independent variable

variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the __________ variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group

negative correlation

two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a ______ correlation is not the same thing as no correlation

operational definition

description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables

participants

subjects of psychological research

peer-reviewed journal article

article read by several other scientists (usually anonymously) with expertise in the subject matter, who provide feedback regarding the quality of the manuscript before it is accepted for publication

placebo effect

people's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation

positive correlation

two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller

random assignment

method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

random sample

subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

reliability

consistency and reproducibility of a given result

replicate

repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research’s reliability

single-blind study

experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group

statistical analysis

determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance

validity

accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure

debriefing

when an experiment involved deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion

deception

purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment

informed consent

process of informing a research participant about what to expect during an experiment, any risks involved, and the implications of the research, and then obtaining the person’s consent to participate

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

committee of administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving non-human animals

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants

allele

specific version of a gene

chromosome

long strand of genetic information

deoxyribonucleic acid

helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs

dominant allele

allele whose phenotype will be expressed in an individual that possesses that allele

epicgenetics

study of gene-environment interactions, such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes

fraternal twins

twins who develop from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm, so their genetic material varies the same as in non-twin siblings

gene

sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical characteristics

genetic environmental correlation

view of gene-environment interaction that asserts our genes affect our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes

genotype

genetic makeup of an individual

heterozygous

consisting of two different alleles

identical twins

twins that develop from the same sperm and egg

mutation

sudden, permanent change in a gene

phenotype

individual’s inheritable physical characteristics

polygenic

multiple genes affecting a given trait

range of reaction

asserts our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall

recessive allele

allele whose phenotype will be expressed only if an individual is homozygous for that allele

theory of evolution by natural selection

states that organisms that are better suited for their environments will survive and reproduce compared to those that are poorly suited for their environments

action potential

electrical signal that moves down the neuron’s axon

agonist

drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter