Psych Ch.2 + 3

Biological Psychology

The scientific study oof the links between biological and psychological processes

Neuroplasticity

The brain adjusting to new experiences and creating new pathways.

Neuron

Nerve Cell

Dendrite

fibers that receive and integrate information, conducting it toward the cell body.

Axon

Fiber that passes the message through its terminal branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fatty tissue that insulates axons and speeds impulses

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Action Potential

a brief electrical charge that travels down its axon

Threshold

excitatory signals exceeding the inhibitory signals by minimum intensity.

Refractory Period

Neuron resting pause

All-or-none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full -strength response) or not firing

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Neurotransmitters

Chemica; messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons; and bind to the receptor site on the receiving messengers.

Reuptake

When the neurotransmitters drift away, break down into enzymes, or are reabsorbed by the sending neuron

Endorphins

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action

Antagonists

a molecule that decreases a neurot5ransmitter’s action by blocking production or release

Nervous System

a communication network that takes in information from the world and the body’s tissues, makes decisions, and sends back information and orders to the body’s tissues

Central Nervous System (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sensory organs

Sensory (afferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor (Efferent) Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Somatic Symptom Disorder

a psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause

Autonomic Nervous System (AMS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. Its sympathetic division arouses, its parasympathetic division calms.

Sympathetic Nervous System

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.

Parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calm the body, conserving its energy.

Reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex.

Endocrine System

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissue.

Adrenal Glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sits just above the kidneys and secretes hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Pituitary Glands

the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Lesion

tissue destruction

EEG (electroencephalogram)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes places on the scalp.

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity.

PET (positron emission tomography)

depicts brain activity by showing each brain area’s consumption of its chemical fuel, the sugar glucose.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure

Hindbrain

consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance.

Midbrain

found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information.

Forebrain

consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities.

Brainstem

the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; is responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat and breathing

Thalamus

the forebrain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Reticular Formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Cerebellum

the hindbrains “little brain: at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

Limbic System

Neural system located mostly in the forebrain— below the cerebral hemispheres— that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus; associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Hypothalamus

a limbic system neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Hippocamus

a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit (conscious) memories— of facts and events— for storage

Frontal Lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

Parietal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head ad toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital Lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

Temporal Lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

Motor Cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Somatosensory Cortex

a cerebral cortex at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us

Heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

Behavior Genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes, small segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins.

Genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes.

Identical (monozygotic) twins

individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings but share a prenatal environment.

Interact

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factory (such as heredity)

Epigenetics

“above” or “in addition to” genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change)

Evolutionary Psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Natural Selection

the principle that the inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to subsequent generations.

Consciousness

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

Cognitive Neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (thinking, knowing, remember, and communicating)

Selective Attention

focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Inattentional Blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Change Blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.

Dual Processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.

Parallel Processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

Sequential Processing

processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems.

Sleep

a periodic, natural loss of consciousness— as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.

Circadian Rythm

our biological clock: regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

Alpha Waves

the relatively allow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

Hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

Delta Waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness.

Dreams

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind

Manifest Content

according to Freud, the symbolic, remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent content)

Latent Content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.

Psychoactive Drug

a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods.

Substance Use Disorder

a disorder characterized by continues substance use despite significant life disruption.

Alcohol Use Disorder

alcohol use marked by a combination of symptoms that may include tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.

Barbiturates

drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

Opioids

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

Stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Amphetamines

drugs (such as methamphetamine) that stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes.

Nicotine

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco products

Methamphetamine

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, reduces baseline dopamine levels

Ecstasy (MDMA)

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition