Developmental Psych Chapter 17 Flash Cards

Ageism

Prejudice or discrimination based on age

Where are many of the oldest populations found?

Europe and North America

Why do aging populations result?

Declines in fertility

Economic growth

Better nutrition

Healthier lifestyles

Improved control of infectious disease

Safer water and sanitation facilities

Advances in science, technology and medicine

Graying of the population in the U.S.

Due to high birthrates and high immigration rates- during early to mid-twentieth century and a current trend towards smaller families

Primary Aging

Gradual and inevitable process of bodily deterioration that develops early in life and continues through the years irrespective of what people do to hold it off

Nature

Secondary Aging

Disease, abuse and disuse- factors within a persons control

Nurture

“Young Old”

65-74

“Old Old”

75-84

“Oldest Old”

85+

Functional Age

How well a person functions in a physical and social environment in comparison with others of the same chronological age

Gerontology

Study of the age and aging processes

Geriatrics

Branch of medicine concerned with aging, are concerned with differences among the elderly

Life Expectancy

Age to which a person born at a certain time and place is statistically likely to live given his or her current age and health status

Longevity

Length of life of members of a population

Human Life Span

Longest period that members of our species can live (longest reported was 122 years)

An increase in life expectancy is influenced by…

Antibiotics

Vaccination programs

Improved sanitary practices

Why has life expectancy in the U.S. shown a slight decline?

Increased death rates for unintentional drug overdoses

Worldwide, who lives longer?

Women live longer with lower mortality rates than men- This is due to women taking better care of themselves, seeking out medical treatment, higher social support, a rise in women’s socioeconomic status and improvements in prenatal and obstetric care

What is global life expectancy in 2016?

72

What attributed to major improvements to life expectancy in Africa between 2000-2015?

Improvements in child survival and treatments of malaria and HIV-life expectancy increased by 9.4 years

Who has the highest life expectancy?

Hispanic Americans (80.3 years)

African American men are more vulnerable than white Americans to…?

Illness and death from infancy through middle adulthood

Life expectancy in the U.S. is lowest in what region?

The southern U.S. due to health behaviors such as smoking, obesity, and exercise than differential access to health care

Healthy life expectancy (HLE) is…?

Globally: 62 years for men and 64.8 years for women

U.S.: estimated around 68.5 years

Senescene

The decline in body functioning associated with aging

The two categories for biological aging theories are…?

Genetic Programming Theories and Variable-Rate Theories

Programmed senescence theory (Genetic-programming theory)

Aging is the result of the sequential switching on and off of certain genes, senescence is the time when the resulting age-associated deficits become evident

Endocrine Theory (Genetic-programming theory)

Biological clocks act through hormones to control the pace of aging

Immunological Theory (Genetic-programming theory)

A programmed decline in immune system functions leads to increased vulnerability to infectious disease and thus to aging and death

Evolutionary Theory (Genetic-programming theory)

Aging is an evolved trait thus genes that promote reproduction are selected at higher rates than genes that extend life

Wear-and-tear theory (Variable-rate theory)

Cells and tissues have vital parts that wear out

Free-radical theory (Variable-rate theory)

Accumulated damage from oxygen radicals causes cells and eventually organs to stop functioning

Rate-of-living theory (Variable-rate theory)

The greater an organism’s rate of metabolism, the shorter its lifespan

Autoimmune theory (Variable-rate theory)

Immune system becomes confused and attacks its own body cells

Genetic-programming theory

Propose that people’s bodies age according to instructions built into the genes and that aging is a normal part of development

Epigenesis

The process of genes being turned on and off by molecular “tags” or instructions- involve changes in how genes are expressed- are dynamic and modifiable by environmental influences, positive interventions may be able to combat the effects of aging (ex. diet and lifestyle)

Twin studies have shown that…?

Genetic differences account for about one-fourth of the variance in the adult human life span

Hayflick limit

Genetically controlled limit, on the number of times cells can divide in members of a species- Hayflick found that human cells will divide no more than 50 times-once cells can no longer replicate, the body loses its ability to repair damaged tissue and thus begins to age

Telomeres

Repetitive fragments of DNA on tips of chromosomes- telomeres become shorter when a cell divides and replicates genetic code- telomeres shorten with age and the rate of shortening is related to the rate of aging-genetically influenced and interacts with environmental influences (involved in Hayflick limit)

Shorter telomeres result in…?

Accelerated aging

Increased risk of cancer

Stroke

Diabetes

Dementia

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Skin disorders

Variable-rate theories (Error theories)

Aging is the result of random processes that vary from person to person-these processes often involve damage due to chance errors in, or environmental assaults on, biological systems

Free radicals

Unstable, highly reactive atoms or molecules, formed during metabolism, that can cause internal bodily damage

Free-radical damage has been associated with…?

Cardiovascular disease

Cancer

Inflammatory diseases such as arthritis

Heart Disease

Neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s/Alzheimer’s

Gastric Ulcers

Survival Curve

Represents the % of people or animals alive at various ages- with humans, the curve ends roughly at age 100

What method has shown proven effects on aging and life expectancy?

Calorie restriction- 25% calorie restriction intervention promoted positive changes in markers related to disease risk and aging in humans- monkeys also show less of brain atrophy that accompanies aging

Changes in organic and systematic functioning are…?

Highly variable

Lung health in the elderly

The lungs become less effective due to reductions in lung volume, atrophy in muscles involved with breathing, and reductions in the ability of the cilia to function effectively

Heart health in the elderly

Likely to suffer from arrhythmia, the muscle walls of the heart may thicken, and the valves that control blood flow in and out of the heart may no longer open completely-may result in impaired capacity for pumping blood

What is associated with making older adults more vulnerable to disease?

Chronic stress- stress can also make older people more susceptible to respiratory infections

What may become more common with age that puts the elderly at a higher risk of malnutrition?

Problems swallowing food

Gastric reflux

indigestion

IBS

Constipation

Reduced absorption of nutrients

Reserve capacity

The backup capacity that helps body systems function to their utmost limits in times of stress- reserve levels tend to drop with age

With aging, there are declines in the brain’s ability to process what?

Information rapidly, in executive functioning and episodic memory

Changes in the aging brain are generally?

Subtle and make little difference in functioning- this is because the brain retains a significant degree of plasticity and can compensate for challenges of aging by reorganizing neural circuitry and working around the problem

What area of the brain becomes more active with age?

The prefrontal cortex- adults use past knowledge and experience to bolster their diminishing processing capacities, allowing them to compensate with slower yet better decision-making

Describe some brain changes in late adulthood and whether this affects cognition

The brain gradually diminishes in weight and volume mostly in the frontal and temporal regions, the hippocampus shrinks, loss of neurons attributed to shrinkage, and a decrease in the number or density of dopamine neurotransmitters due to loss of synapses (neural connections) which results in slowed response time, . Neuronal loss is not substantial and does not affect cognition

What are some positive changes in older brains?

Brains can grow new nerve cells from stem cells-physical activity paired with cognitive changes may be most effective in growth of new cells- older adults that maintain a sense of purpose later in life retain a larger volume of gray matter in their insular cortex

By 80 years old, what % of adults require glasses?

50%

Who is most likely to have a visual impairment?

Women

Cataracts

Cloudy or opaque areas in the lens of the eye, are common in older adults and eventually cause blurred vision- 26 million Americans are currently affected- removal of cataracts is usually successful and reduces mortality risk up to 60%

Age-related macular degeneration

The leading cause of irreversible visual impairment in older adults- this is a condition in which the center of the retina gradually loses its ability to discern fine details- can be prevented further with antioxidant and zinc supplements and for extreme cases an implantation of a tiny “telescope”

Glaucoma

Irreversible damage to the optic nerve caused by increase pressure in the eye- can be treated with eye drops, pills or surgery- even with treatment 10% of people who get glaucoma will go blind- leading cause of blindness worldwide

How many adults globally have disabling hearing loss?

466 million

What gender and ethnicity is most likely to have a hearing impairment?

Men (2x more likely); white people

What are the most common cause of fractures?

Falls- preventable by eliminating hazards commonly found in the home

What can potentially reduce the risk of falls?

Exercise interventions and resistance, balance and endurance training- all improved balance endurance and ease of walking

Functional fitness

The ability to perform the physical activities of daily living- being less physically active results in a decline in functional fitness

Older people tend to sleep and dream…?

Less than before; hours of sleep are more restricted and they may awaken more easily and earlier-driven by normative changes in circadian rhythms

What may result from poor sleep quality or chronic insomnia?

Depression

Neurodegenerative disorders such as dementia

Cognitive declines

What therapy is used to treat insomnia and sleep disorders and what may it entail?

Cognitive behavioral therapy; may include instructions on staying in bed only when asleep, getting up at same time everyday and learning about false beliefs pertaining to sleep needs

What are the most commonly prescribed drugs for sleep disorders?

Benzodiazepines (Halcion, Ativan)

Non-benzodiazepines (Ambien)

Suvorexan (Belsomra)

The most important factor in maintaining sexual functioning in old age is…?

Consistent sexual activity over the years

What do 78% of U.S. adults age 65+ consider themselves health-wise?

In good to excellent health

What is related to poor health and to limited access to and use of health care?

Poverty

What is poverty related to in the elderly?

Higher incidence of arthritis

Diabetes

High blood pressure

Heart disease

Depression

Stroke

What were the six top leading causes of death in the U.S. in 2016?

Heart disease

Cancer

Chronic lower respiratory disease

Stroke

Alzheimer’s disease

Diabetes

(more than 2/3 of healthcare $ involve management for chronic diseases)

What are the leading causes of death age 50-69+ worldwide?

Heart disease

Cancers

Diabetes

Blood and endocrine disorders

Chronic pulmonary disease

Liver disease

What race/ethnicity is most likely to have diabetes?

Black and Hispanic

Dementia

Deterioration in cognitive and behavioral functioning due to physiological causes-becomes common with advanced age (worldwide: 50 million cases and 10 million new cases a year)

Alzheimer’s disease

Progressive, irreversible, degenerative brain disorder characterized by cognitive deterioration and loss of control of bodily functions, leading to death (vast majority of dementia cases (2/3) are caused by Alzheimer’s)

Parkinson’s disease

The second most common disorder, which involves progressive neurological degeneration, is characterized by tremor, stiffness, slowed movement, and unstable posture

What are some protective factors against dementia?

Certain personality traits

Cognitive characteristics

Education

Challenging job

Bilingualism

Social interaction and involvement (possibly)

(active minds stay healthier longer)

Approximately what % of elderly adults report frequent mental distress?

6%

Who is most likely to be sexually active in older age? (Men/Women)

Men

Who is most likely to report symptoms of clinical depression?

Older women

The brain of a person with Alzheimer’s contains excessive amounts of what?

Neurofibrillary tangles (twisted masses of dead neurons) and amyloid plaque (nonfunctioning tissue formed by beta amyloid in the spaces between neurons)

Cognitive reserve

Hypothesized fund of energy that may enable a deteriorating brain to continue to function normally

What are some treatments for Alzheimer’s disease?

FDA has approved 4 drugs to slow progression (memantine)

Immunotherapy

Cognitive training interventions

Behavioral therapies

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Intelligence test for adults of different ages that yields verbal and performance scores as well as a combined score (younger adults perform better than older adults)

Older adults have more extensive repertoires of strategies to apply to…?

Interpersonal situations

Sensory memory

Involves the brief storage of sensory information

Working memory

involves the short-term storage of information being actively processed (calculating a bill in your head)

Episodic memory

Long-term memory of specific experiences or events, linked to time and place, most likely to deteriorate with age

Semantic memory

Long-term memory of general factual knowledge, social customs, and language, shows little decline with age

Procedural memory

Long-term memory of motor skills, habits, and ways of doing things- which can be recalled without conscious effort; sometimes called implicit memory- is relatively unaffected with age

Dorothy, age 65, is beginning to have trouble driving because she cannot focus on fine details. This is probably because

of age-related macular degeneration

The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon most likely results from

failures in working memory

Based on rate-of-living theories that focus on energy use, what might be the single most important thing people can do to increase their life span?

eat less

A baby born in the United States in the year 2016 could be expected to live about ________ years longer than a baby born in the year 1900.

30

What proportion of Americans have at least two chronic conditions?

More than two thirds

Based on the results of the Seattle Longitudinal Study, at what age do most adults begin to score below the average performance of younger adults?

80