psych ch.3 and 4 test

absolute threshold

the minimal amount of energy that can produce a sensation

acupuncture

use of pins to diminish pain, possible because of stimulation of release of endorphins and cortisol

afterimage

the lingering visual impression made by a stimulus that has been removed

auditory nerve

the axon bundle that transmits neural impulses from the organ of Corti to the brain

basilar membrane

a membrane that lies coiled within the cochlea

binocular cues

stimuli suggestive of depth that involve simultaneous perception by both eyes

bipolar cells

neurons that conduct neural impulses fro rods and cones to ganglion cells

blind spot

the area of the retina where axons from ganglion cells meet to form the optic nerve

bottom-up processing

the organization of the parts of a pattern to recognize, or form an image of, the pattern they compose

brightness constancy

the tendency to perceive an object as being just as bright even though lighting conditions change its intensity

closure

the tendency to perceive a broken figure as beign complete or whole

cochlea

the inner ear; the bony tube that contains the basilar membrane and the organ of Corti

color constancy

the tendency to perceive elements that move together as belonging together

common fate

the tendency to perceive elements that move together as belonging together

complementary

descriptive of colors of the spectrum that when combined produce white or nearly white light

cones

cone-shaped photoreceptors that transmit sensations of color

continuity

the tendency to perceive a series of points or lines as having unity

convergence

a binocular cue for depth based on the inward movement of the eyes as they attempt to focus on a object that is drawing nearer

cornea

transparent tissue forming the outer surface of the eyeball

dark adaptation

the process of adjusting to conditions of lower lighting by increasing the sensitivity of rods and cones

decibels (dB)

a unit expressing the loudness of a sound

desensitization

the type of sensory adaptation in which we become less sensitive to constant stimuli; also called negative adaptation

dichromat

a person who is sensitive to black-white and either red-green or blue-yellow and hence is partially color-blind

difference threshold

the minimal difference in intensity required between two sources of energy so that they will be perceived as being different

extrasensory perception (ESP)

perception of objects or events through means other than the recognized sensory organs

feature detectors

neurons in the sensory cortex that fire in response to specific features of sensory information such as lines or edges of objects

flavor

a complex quality of food and other substances that is based on their odor, texture and temperature as well as their tase

fovea

an area near the center of the retina that is dense with cones and where vision is consequently most acute

frequency theory

the theory that the pitch of a sound is reflected in the frequency of the neural impulses that are generated in response to the sound

ganglion cells

neurons whose axons form the optic nerve

gate theory of pain

Melzack’s view that neurons in the spine can simultaneously transmit only a limited amount of information, so that stimulation of neurons from many regions can limit the perception of pain in one region

Hertz (Hz)

a unit expressing the frequency of sound waves; one hertz equals one cycle per second

hue

the color of light, as determined by its wavelength

illusions

sensations that give rise to misperceptions

iris

a muscular membrane whose dilation regulates the amount of light that enters the eye

Just noticeable difference (jnd)

the minimal amount by which a source of energy must be increased or decreased so that a difference in intensity will be perceived

kinesthesis

the sense that informs us about the positions and motion of parts of our bodies

lens

a transparent body behind the iris that focuses an image on the retina

monochromat

a person who is sensitive to black and white only and hence color-blind

monocular cues

stimuli suggestive of depth that can be perceived with only one eye

motion parallax

a monocular cue for depth based on the perception that nearby objects appear to move more rapidly in relation to our own motion

olfactory nerve

the nerve that transmits information concerning odors from olfactory receptors to the brain

opponent-process theory

the theory that color vision is made possible by three types of cones, some of which respond to red or green light, some to blue or yellow, and some to the intensity of light

optic nerve

the nerve that transmits sensory information from the eye to the brain

Organ of Corti

the receptor for hearing that lies on the basilar membrane in the cochlea

perception

the process by which sensations are organized into an inner representation of the world

perceptual organization

the tendency to integrate perceptual elements into meaningful patterns

perspective

a monocular cue for depth based on the convergence (coming-together) of parallel lines as they recede into the distance

phantom limb pain

perception of pain apparently “in” limbs that have been amputated, often because of activation of nerves in the stump of the missing limb

photoreceptors

cells that respond to light

pitch

the highness or lowness of a sound as determined by the frequency of the sound waves

place theory

the theory that the pitch of a sound is determined by the section of the basilar membrane that vibrates in response to the sound

presbyopia

a condition characterized by brittleness of the lens

proximity

nearness; the perceptual tendency to group together objects that are near one another

pupil

the black: looking opening in the center of the iris. through which light enters the eye

retina

the area of the inner surface of the eye that contains rods and cones

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for depth based on the difference in the image cast by an object on the retinas of the eyes as the object moves closer or farther away

rods

rod-shaped photoreceptors that are sensitive only to the intensity of light

sensation

the stimulation of sensory receptors and the transmission of sensory information to the central nervous system

sensitization

the type of sensory adaptation in which we become more sensitive to stimuli that are low in magnitude; also called positive adaptation

sensory adaptation

the processes by which organisms become more sensitive to stimuli that are low in magnitude and less sensitive to stimuli that are constant or ongoing in magnitude

shape constancy

the tendency to perceive an object as being the same shape even though the retinal image varies in shape as it rotates

signal-detection theory

the view that the perception of sensory stimuli involves the interaction of physical, biological, and psychological factors

similarity

the perceptual tendency to group together objects that are similar in appearance

size constancy

the tendency to perceive an object as being the same size even as the size of its retinal image changes according to the object’s distance

stroboscopic motion

a visual illusion in which the perception of motion is generated by a series of stationary images that are presented in rapid succession

subliminal stimulation

sensory stimulation below a person’s absolute threshold for conscious perception

taste buds

the sensory organs for taste; they contain taste cells and are located mostly on the tongue

taste cells

receptor cells that are sensitive to taste

texture gradient

a monocular cue for depth based on the perception that closer objects appear to have rougher (more detailed) surfaces

top-down processing

the use of contextual information or knowledge of a pattern in order to organize parts of the pattern

trichromat

a person with normal color vision

trichromatic theory

the theory that color vision is made possible by three types of cones, some of which respond to red light, some to green, and some to blue

vestibular sense

the sense of equilibrium that informs us about our bodies’ positions relative to gravity

visible light

the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that stimulates the eye and produces visual sensations

visual acuity

sharpness of vision

Weber’s constant

the fraction of the intensity by which a source of physical energy must be increased or decreased so that a difference in intensity will be perceived

abstinence syndrome

a characteristic cluster of withdrawal symptoms that results from sudden decrease in an addictive drug’s level of usage

activation-synthesis hypothesis

the view that dreams reflect activation of cognitive activity by the reticular formation and synthesis of this activity into a pattern

alpha waves

rapid low-amplitude brain waves that have been linked to feelings of relaxation

amphetamines

stimulants derived from alpha-methyl-beta phenylethylamine, a colorless liquid consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen

barbituates

addictive depressants used to relieve anxiety or induce sleep

biofeedback training (BFT)

the systematic feeding of information back to an organism about a bodily function so that the organism can gain control of that function

circadian rhythm

a cycle that is connected with the 24-hour period of Earth’s rotation

consciousness

a concept with many meanings, including sensory awareness of the world outside, direct inner awareness of one’s thoughts and feelings, personal unity, and the waking state

continuity hypothesis

the view that the content of dreams tends to be consistent with previous cognitive activity

delta waves

strong, slow brain waves usually emitted during stage 4 sleep

depressants

drugs that lower the rate of activity of the nervous system

direct inner awareness

knowledge of one’s own thoughts, feelings, and memories without the use of sensory organs

electromyograph (EMG)

an instrument that measures muscle tension

flashbacks

distorted perceptions or hallucinations that occur days or weeks after LSD usage but mimic the LSD experience

hallucinogenics

substances that cause hallucinations

hydrocarbons

chemical compounds consisting of hydrogen and carbon

hypnosis

an altered state of consciousness in which people are highly suggestible and behave as though they are in a trance

LSD

lysergic acid diethylamide; a hallucinogen

marijuana

the dried vegetable matter of the cannabis sativa plant

mescaline

a hallucinogen derived from the mescal (peyote) cactus

mindfulness meditation (MM)

a form of meditation that provides clients with techniques they can use to focus on the present moment rather than ruminate about problems

narcolepsy

a “sleep attack” in which a person falls asleep suddenly and irresistibly

narcotics

drugs used to relieve pain and induce sleep; the term is usually reserved for opiates