AP Psychology Midterms II

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information; enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental process, as when we construct perceptions drawing out our experience and expectation.

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimuli ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information. (e.g. what determines a "hit", "miss," "false alarm" or "correct rejection")

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time; also referred to as just noticeable difference (JND)

Weber's law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses.

wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.

amplitude

height of a wave; influences brightness in visual perception and volume in audition

hue

the dimension of color that is determine by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the color portions of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

rods

Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.

cones

Receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. They detect fine details and give rise to color sensation.

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye; no receptors cells are located there. Creates a gap in our vision that is "filled" by the brain.

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.

parallel processing

the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrast with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

Trichromatic theory

the retina contains three different colors receptors-one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue-which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color.

Opponent-Process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision; useful for explaining the phenomenon of "after-images"

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the objects.

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time; determines perception of hue in light and of pitch in sound

pitch

sound information that depends on frequency (or wavelength) of sound waves

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

Place Theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is open by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming form the brain.

kinesthesia

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts; enabled by feedback from proprioceptors (which provide info about the movement of muscles, tendons, joints); also called "proprioception"

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance; enabled by feedback from semicircular canals in inner ear

hair cells

finger-like projections on the basilar membrane that stimulate activity of the auditory nerve

cochlea

snail-shaped tube in the inner ear that contains fluid that moves in response to vibrations, stimulating activity on the basilar membrane

basilar membrane

area within the cochlea where hair cells are located

semicircular canals

fluid filled tubes in inner ear that provide information about movement of the head

David Hubel & Torsten Wiesel

Nobel-prize-winning researchers who discovered "feature detectors" within the brain

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences taste

synaesthesia

when one sort of sensation (such as hearing a sound) produces another (such as seeing color)

olfaction

sense of smell

Gestalt

an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts.

subliminal

literally, "below threshold"; stimuli too weak to be consistently detected

selective attention

ability to attend to only a limited amount of sensory information at one time

cocktail party effect

ability to selectively attend to one voice among many

figure-ground

A gestalt perceptual phenomenon; the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings

proximity

Gestalt grouping principle; we group nearby figures together

similarity

Gestalt grouping principle; we group similar figures together

continuity

Gestalt grouping principle; our tendency to perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones

connectedness

Gestalt grouping principle; when objects uniform (in color or texture) are linked (no space exists between them) we perceive them as a single unit

closure

Gestalt grouping principle; we fill in "gaps" to create a full, complete object

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

Wolfgang Kohler

credited with founding Gestalt Psychology; also conducted studies of insight learning in chimps

stroboscopic movement

the brain's perception of continuous movement in a rapid series of slightly varying images; this is how we perceive motion in film and animation

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change

perceptual adaptation

the ability to adjust to an altered perceptual reality; in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or inverted visual field (as when wearing visual displacement goggles).

perceptual set

mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another (for example, due to suggestion or expectations based on prior learning)

extrasensory perception (ESP)

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

change blindness

when paying attention to a specific aspect of a visual scene, we may fail to notice other fairly obvious changes or presentations of stimuli; demonstrated by the door study and the gorilla illusion

bipolar cells

second layer of neurons in the retina that transmit impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells; rods share these, but cones do not

retinal ganglion cells

the third layer of retinal neurons whose axons leave the eyeball and form the optic nerve.

gustation

sense of taste

embodied cognition

in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments

priming

Activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

Psychophysics

The study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience.

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Stream of consciousness

each moment flow into next, proposed by William James, flit between diff states consciousness

Dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others, much of behavior occurs on autopilot

Sleep

periodic + natural loss of consciousness, process most info outside conscious awareness

Circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle (ex. temp, wakefulness), thinking + memory best @ daily peak, can be altered by age + experience

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur, aka paradoxical sleep, bc the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active, heart rate increases, breathing irregular

Alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

Hallucinations

NREM 1, false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

Hypnagogic sensations

NREM 1, bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

Sleep spindles

NREM 2, bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity

Delta waves

NREM 3, the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

Sleep patterns

generally awake, NREM 1, NREM 2, NREM 3, NREM 2, REM, as night goes on NREM 3 disappear, NREM 2 + REM longer, 90 minute sleep stage

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm, in response to light SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production + modifying our feelings of sleepiness, higher melatonin \= higher sleepiness

Insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

Night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM 3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

Dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.

Manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)

Latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

Psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

Substance use disorder

continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Alcohol use disorder

alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use, slow neural processing, disrupt memory, reduce self awareness, expect effect

Barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment, ex tranquilizer

Opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety, ex. morphine, heroin, narcotics