Cognition

Memory

human capacity to register, retain, and remember information

Information processing model of memory

encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding

the process of putting information into the memory system

Storage

the retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

When we have difficulty attending to two complex tasks

divided attention.

Levels of processing theory or semantic network theory

the ability to form memories depends upon the depth of the processing

Shallow processing

structural encoding emphasizes structure of incoming sensory information

Deep processing

semantic encoding involves forming an association or attaching meaning to a sensory impression and results in longer-lasting memories

Self-reference effect or self-referent encoding

processing information deemed important or relevant more deeply, making it easier to recall

Atkinson-Shiffrin model

Three memory systems—sensory, short term, and long term

Sensory memory

memory system that holds external events from the senses for up to a few seconds

Visual encoding

the encoding of picture images

Iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

Acoustic encoding

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

Echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Selective attention—

the focusing of awareness on stimuli in sensory memory that facilitates its encoding into STM

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of information about space, time, and frequency that occurs without interfering with our thinking about other things

Parallel processing

a natural mode of information processing that involves several information streams simultaneously

Effortful processing.

encoding that requires our attention and conscious effort

Feature extraction (pattern recognition)

finding a match for new raw information in sensory storage by actively searching through long-term memory

Short-term memory (STM)

Sworking memory, 20 seconds before forgotten; capacity of seven plus or minus two item

Rehearsal

conscious repetition of information to either maintain information in STM or to encode it for storage

Maintenance rehearsal

repetition that keeps information in STM about 20 seconds

Elaborative rehearsal

repetition that creates associations between the new memory and existing memories stored in LTM

Chunking

grouping information into meaningful units increasing the capacity of STM

Mnemonic devices

Mnemonic devices—memory tricks or strategies to make information easier to remember.

Method of loci

uses visualization with familiar objects on a path to recall information in a list

Peg word system

uses association of terms to be remembered with a memorized scheme (“One is a bun, two is ...”)

Long-term memory (LTM)

* relatively permanent storage with unlimited capacity
* LTM is subdivided into explicit (declarative) memory and implicit memory

Explicit memory (declarative)

* memory of facts and experiences that one consciously knows and can verbalize
* subdivided into semantic memory (memory of general knowledge or objective facts) and episodic memory (memory of personally experienced events)

Implicit memory (nondeclarative)

* retention without conscious recollection of learning the skills and dispositions
* includes procedural memory—memories of perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills

Hierarchies

systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes

Concepts

mental representations of related things

Prototypes

the most typical examples of a concept

Semantic networks

more irregular and distorted systems than strict hierarchies, with multiple links from one concept to others

Schemas

frameworks of basic ideas and preconceptions about people, objects, and events based on past experience

Script

a schema for an event

Connectionism

theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons, many of which can work together to process a single memory

Artificial intelligence (AI)

a field of study in which computer programs are designed to simulate human cognitive abilities such as reasoning, learning, and understanding language

Neural network or parallel processing model

clusters of neurons that are interconnected (and computer models based on neuronlike systems) and process information simultaneously, automatically, and without our awareness

Long-term potentiation or LTP

an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation and possibly the neural basis for learning and memory, involving an increase in the efficiency with which signals are sent across the synapses within neural networks

The thalamus is involved in…

encoding sensory memory into STM

The hippocampus is involved in…

putting information from STM into LTM

The amygdala is involved in...

the storage of emotional memories

The cerebellum processes ________ __ ___________ and seems to store ________ __ ___________ and ________ __ ___________ memories.

The cerebellum processes **implicit memories** and seems to store **procedural memory** and **classically conditioned** memories.

The basal ganglia process…

implicit memories

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Retrieval cue

a stimulus that provides a trigger to get an item out of memory

Priming

activating specific associations in memory either consciously or unconsciously

Recognition

identification of something as familiar such as multiple choice and matching questions on a test

Recall

retrieval of information from LTM in the absence of any other information or cues such as for an essay question or fill-in on a test

Reconstruction

retrieval that can be distorted by adding, dropping, or changing details to complete a picture from incomplete stored information

Confabulation

process of combining and substituting memories from events other than the one you’re trying to remember

Flashbulb memory

vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Misinformation effect

incorporation of misleading information into memories of a given event

Serial position effect

better recall for information that comes at the beginning (primacy effect) and at the end of a list of words (recency effect)

Encoding specificity principle

retrieval depends upon the match between the way information is encoded and the way it is retrieved

Context-dependent memory

physical setting in which a person learns information is encoded along with the information and becomes part of the memory trace

Mood congruence (mood-dependent memory)

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.

State-dependent memory effect

tendency to recall information better when in the same internal state as when the information was encoded

Distributed practice

spreading out the memorization of information or the learning of skills over several sessions typically produces better retrieval than massed practice

Massed practice

cramming the memorization of information or the learning of skills into one session

Forgetting

the inability to retrieve information. Forgetting results from failure to encode, decay of stored memories, or inability to access stored information

Interference

learning some items prevents retrieving others, especially when the items are similar

Proactive interference

the process by which old memories prevent the retrieval of newer memories

Retroactive inference

the process by which new memories prevent the retrieval of older memories

Repression

the tendency to forget unpleasant or traumatic memories hidden in the unconscious mind, according to Freud

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the often temporary inability to access information accompanied by a feeling that the information is in LTM.

Anterograde amnesia

inability to put new information into explicit memory resulting from damage to hippocampus; no new semantic memories are formed

Retrograde amnesia

memory loss for a segment of the past, usually around the time of an accident

Overlearning

continuing to practice after memorizing information makes it more resistant to forgetting

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering

Metacognition

thinking about how you think

Problem-solving steps typically involve…

identifying a problem, generating problem-solving strategies, trying a strategy, and evaluating the results

Trial and error

trying possible solutions and discarding those that fail to solve the problem

Algorithm

problem-solving strategy that involves a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to certain types of problems

Heuristic

a problem-solving strategy used as a mental shortcut to quickly simplify and solve a problem, but that does not guarantee a correct solution

Insight learnin

the sudden appearance (often creative) or awareness of a solution to a problem

Deductive reasoning

reasoning from the general to the specific

Inductive reasoning

reasoning from the specific to the general

Mental sets

barriers to problem solving that occur when we apply only methods that have worked in the past rather than trying new or different strategies

Functional fixedness

when we are not able to recognize novel uses for an object because we are so familiar with its common use.

Cognitive illusion.

systematic way of thinking that is responsible for an error in judgment

Availability heuristic

a tendency to estimate the probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind

Representativeness heuristic

tendency to judge the likelihood of things according to how they relate to a prototype

Framing

* the way an issue is stated
* how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Anchoring effect

tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point, pulling our response toward that poin

Confirmation bias

tendency to notice or seek information that already supports our preconceptions and ignore information that refutes our ideas

Belief perseverance

the tendency to hold onto a belief after the basis for the belief is discredited

Belief bias

the tendency for our preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, making illogical conclusions seem valid or logical conclusions seem invalid

Hindsight bias

the tendency to falsely report, after the event, that we correctly predicted the outcome of the event

Overconfidence bias

the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

Creativity

the ability to think about a problem or idea in new and unusual ways to come up with unconventional solutions

Incubation

putting aside a problem temporarily; allows the problem solver to look at the problem from a different perspective.

Brainstorming

generating lots of possible solutions to a problem without making prior evaluative judgments

Divergent thinking

thinking that produces many alternatives or idea

Convergent thinking

conventional thinking directed toward a single correct solution

Language

communication system based on words and grammar; spoken, written, or gestured words and the way they are combined to communicate meaning from person to person and to transmit civilization’s accumulated knowledge

Phonemes

smallest units of sound in spoken language