A&P1 - Chapter 1

Chapter 1 A&B

Anatomy

The structure of body at different levels

What are the the two types of anatomy?

Gross and Microscopic

Gross Anatomy

Anatomy that is visible to the naked eye

Microscopic Anatomy

Anatomy that is seen using a microscope

Embryology

Study of the human form from conception to birth

Developmental Anatomy

Study of the human form from conception to adulthood

Why study developmental anatomy?

Some genetic disorders express themselves later in the lifespan

What are the two studies of biology that are related to physiology?

Molecular Biology and Biochemistry

Krebs Cycle

A part of glycolysis which makes CO2 that joins to H2O to make H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

What is the major acid in the human body at any given time?

H2CO3

What happens if you don’t get enough oxygen?

You will accumulate too much CO2 and Carbonic acid, which you will undergo Acidosis. This will kill enzymes in the body bc the proteins will denature due to the PH levels.

What does the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain (ETC) produce?

Krebs cycle produces NADH and FADH2 which moves to the ETC to do chemiosmosis.

What does chemiosmosis require to accept electrons?

Oxygen

Where is oxygen mostly utilized in the cells of the body?

In the last step of ETC

What are the three studies that overlap with each other?

Molecular Biology, Biochemistry, and Physiology

Regional Anatomy

All structures in one part of the body

Systematic Anatomy

Gross anatomy of the body studied by system. Specializes in an entire system. Ex.) Neurologist specializes in disorders of neutrons

Surface Anatomy

Study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin. The depth and level. Ex.) Trauma/ER

Referred Pain

Injury that may not be in the same area where that nerve is hurting

What are the two studies of microscopic anatomy?

Cytology and histology

Cytology

Study of the cell in their individual merit. Usually studied by Pap smear or swabs.

Why study the cell in its individual merit?

If a single cell is showing signs of cancerous change then it has to be reported and the physician must make a decision to look further or not.

Histology

Study of tissues. Groups of similar cells.

Pathological Anatomy (Histopathological)

Study of structural changes caused by disease. Sometimes physical or microscopic.

Radiographic Anatomy

Study of internal structures.

How can we visualize radiographic anatomy?

X-Ray, Ultrasound, Magnetic resonance, Contrast materials

Molecular Biology

Study of anatomical structure at a sub cellular level

What do proteins use to cross the phospholipid bilayer?

Protein-based materials can’t cross the phospholipid bilayer by itself so it must bind to a receptor like Glut-4 such as insulin to release a secondary messenger.

Physiology

The FUNCTIONS of the body, often at the CELLULAR or MOLECULAR level. Considers the operation of specific organ systems.

3 Major Buffer Systems

All located in the kidney. 1.) Phosphate 2.) Bicarbonate 3.) Protein + phosphate + bicarbonate

What happens to the buffer systems when the kidney is damaged?

All buffer systems malfunction and organs start to fail bc proteins are naturing

Neurophysiology

Workings of the nervous system

What are the two major nervous systems?

Central (CNS) and Endocrine nervous system.

What to the 2 major nervous systems control?

Every cell directly or indirectly

Central Nervous System

Brain and Spinal Cord. Chief regulatory system.

Endocrine System

Produce hormones to control metabolism of all cells directly or indirectly. It is located inside the CNS.

Cardiovascular

Operation of the heart of blood vessels

Principle of complementarity

Function always reflects structure. Normal structure → Normal function. Which means Anatomy → Physiology have an interrelationship

What is an example of the principle of complementarity

Sickle Cell Anemia

What happens when someone developed sickle cell anemia?

A small mutation where glutamic acid substitutes an amino acid valine. Low oxygen levels (in a person who has the mutation) can cause sickle cell anemia. The structure of the sickle blocks the circulation of organs and is life threatening.

What are the cells that lack a nucleus?

1\.) Platelet/Thrombocyte 2.) Red blood cell/ Erythrocyte

Chemical

Atoms combined to form molecules

Levels of structural organization

Atoms → Molecules → Macromolecules → Organelle → Cells → Tissues → Organ → Organ systems → Organism

Integumentary System

Forms the external body covering. Skin.

Integumentary

Attachment

What is the largest organ in the human body?

Skin

What are the structures attached to the integumentary system?

Hair, sweat glands, oil glands, nerve endings, pigments, nails

Skeletal System

Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments. Protects and supports body organs, provides framework for muscles, site of blood cell formation, and stores minerals such as calcium and phosphate.

What is the only system we have voluntary control over?

Skeletal muscles

Muscular System

Composed of muscles and tendons

Aponeurosis

White sheet of tissue that connects muscle to bone or cartilage. It allows for manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. It also maintains posture.

Nervous System

Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves. The fast-acting control system of the body. Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and glands (directly controlled).

In the CNS or brain, what part is structurally most complex and functionally most sophisticated?

The cerebral cortex. It is out 1/2 cm the surface of the brain.

3 types of muscle

Cardiac, skeletal, smooth (hollow tube)

What is the largest gland?

Liver

What is the smallest gland?

Goblet cell; secrets mucus

Cardiovascular System

Composed of heart and blood vessels. The heart pumps blood and the blood vessels transport blood throughout the body.

What are the blood vessels of the cardiovascular system?

Arteries, veins, and capillaries

Arteries

Brings away from heart

Veins

Brings to heart

Capillaries

Most abundant vessels. Forms a network of vessels in every major organ.

Permeable

Materials can leave and enter. Includes all vessels in the cardiovascular system.

Lymphatic System

Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels. It is the garbage collector of the body. Picks up fluid from blood vessels and returns it to the blood. Houses white blood cells involved with immunity.

Lymph nodes

Most abundant in the neck. 450-600.

Respiratory System

Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. Gets rid of CO2 and brings in O2.

Digestive System

Composed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, and liver. Absorption or material we eat (unregulated process). Eliminates indigestible food stuffs and feces.

Urinary System

Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. Buffer systems. Rid waste and maintains electrolyte balance.

Reproductive Systems (male)

Composed of prostrate gland, penis, testes, scrotum, and ductus deferens. Main functions is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male hormones. Ducts and glands delivers sperm to female reproductive tract.

Reproductive Systems (female)

Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine tube, uterus, and vagina. Main functions is the production of offspring. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of fetus. Mammary glands produce milk to nourish newborns.

Organ systems interrelationships

The integumentary system protects the body from external environment. Ex.) disorder of the skin could be taking place in the heart

Necessary life functions: maintaining boundaries

The internal environment remains distinct from external

Maintaining boundaries on the cellular level

Accomplished by plasma membranes (no cell wall like plants)

Maintaining boundaries on the organismal level

Accomplished by skin

Homeostasis

The ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an ever-changing outside world.

Negative feedback, internal environment is in a dynamic state of equilibrium (within limits), muscles and glands, and chemical, thermal, and neural factors interact to maintain this.

3 interdependent components of control mechanisms of homeostasis

Receptor → control center (brain) → effector (responds)

Receptor

Monitors the environments and responds to changes (stimuli)

Control Center

Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained (usually the brain)

Effector

Provides the means to respond to the stimulus (muscle/gland)

Negative Feedback

The output shuts off the original stimulus. The product of a biochemical reaction regulates its own production by shutting off its out production after it has been produced in adequate amount

Positive Feedback

The output enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus. Diseases occur through this unregulated process. Ex.) regulation of blood clotting

Why can positive feedback bad for the human body?

If a human loses 1L of blood it could be replenished. Yet, losing 2L or more blood could be irreversible.

2L sudden blood loss. Not enough blood for heart to pump effectively → arterial pressure fails → flow of blood to heart muscle decreases → further decreasing pumping ability. The cycle continues until death.

2 types of negative feedback

Intrinsic and extrinsic

Intrinsic feedback

Maintained within the organs that produce them. Ex) kidney cells maintain Na levels inside cells

Extrinsic feedback

Regulation of an organ by the endocrine or nervous system. Nerves innervate target tissue to enhance or inhibit function directly. Glands secrete hormones to circulatory system to affect those organs w/ receptors for that hormone.

Anatomical Position

Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, thumbs point away from body. A point of reference in which we will always imagine, regardless of the subject.

Anterior/Ventral

Toward the front of body

Posterior/Dorsal

Away from the front of body

Superior/Cephalic

Toward the head

Interior/Caudal

Away from head

Medial

Toward the midline

Lateral

Away from midline

Intermediate

Between medial and lateral structure

What is are the other names for the midline of the body?

Medial plane/Midsagittal plane

Sagittal

Refers to the suture in the skull that divides it into left and right halves

What happens if there are more than three points?

Then you will refer to more specific parts and measurements

Axial

Head, neck, and trunk

Calvarium

Skull cap

What suture runs in the center of the skull cap?

Sagittal

What are the left and right sides in the skull cap that are split by the sagittal suture?

Parietal left and right

Appendicular

Appendages or limbs. Contains the upper and lower extremities