vdsa

sasa

transverse plane

horizontal plane

frontal/coronal plane

front and back halves

sagittal plane

left and right halves

medial

midline of the body

lateral

away from the midline

superior/cranial

towards the head

inferior/caudal

towards the feet

anterior/ventral

front of the body

posterior/dorsal

back of the body

superficial

near the surface

deep

away from the surface

proximal

closer to the reference point

distal

away from the reference point

flexion

smaller joint angle

extension

larger joint angle

abduction

moves away from the body

adduction

moves towards the body

internal rotation

turns joint towards the body

external rotation

turns joint away from the body

somatic body systems (4)

skeletal system, articular system, muscular system and integument system

visceral body systems (4)

cardiovascular and respiratory system, gastrointestinal system, urinary system and reproductive system

supply systems (4)

nervous system, arterial system, venous system and lymphatic system

periods of human embryology (3)

1. conceptus
2. embryo
3. fetus

stages of reproductive process (6)

1. ovulation
2. fertilisation
3. cleavage
4. morula
5. blastocyst
6. implantation

2 germ layers stage

inner mass splits forming cavities and an embryonic disc

gastrulation

forms a primitive streak and the 3 germ layers

3 germ layers

ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

primitive streak

line of thickened cells on the upper surface of the bilaminar disk on the epiblast

primitive groove

invagination of the primitive streak

formation of embryonic endoderm

cells move into the hypoblast from the primitive groove

formation of embryonic mesoderm

cells move into the space between the epiblast and endoderm from the primitive groove

formation of ectoderm

left over cells in the epiblast which have not migrated

node

sets up left and right symmetry through cilia causing fluid flow

formation of notochord

1. cranial midline extends from the primitive streak
2. tube grow in length as cells are added from the primitive streak
3. primitive streak disappears as cells form notochord

notochord

informs where the CNS will form

formation of neural plate and neural tube

1. ectodermal cells above the notochord thicken and differentiate
2. the neural plate extends and invaginate to form a neural groove
3. the neural folds converge
4. the neural tube closes

neural crest cells

closes the neural tube

structures derived from neural crest cells

dorsal root ganglia, enteric ganglia, schwann cells, melanocytes, sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia, dentine

segmentation of the neural tube

1. cranial end starts to swell to form vesicles
2. vesicles begin to form the brain
3. remainder of the neural tube forms the spinal cord

development of epidermis

embryonic ectoderm is colonised by melanocytes (neural crest cells) and Langerhans cells (immune cells from bone marrow)

main force of embryo folding

differential growth of various tissue causing the embryonic disk to stretch

sections of the mesoderm (3)

paraxial mesoderm, intermediate mesoderm, lateral mesoderm

paraxial mesoderm

forms dermis of skin, axial skeleton, and axial and limb muscles

intermediate mesoderm

forms urogenital system

lateral mesoderm

forms ventro-lateral body wall, heart and vasulature, the wall of the gut and bones on the limbs

somitogenesis

formation of somites to produce muscle, bone and dermis

sections of somites

dermatome (dermis), myotome (muscle), sclerotome (skeletal elements)

müllerian duct

female duct forms oviduct, uterus and upper vagina

wolffian duct

male duct forms epididymus, vas deferens and seminal vesicles

development of male genital tract

1. SRY on Y drives genital ridges to develop into testis
2. AMH causes müllerian duct to degenerate
3. testosterone triggers wolffian duct to develop

development of female genital tract

1. absense of SRY causes genital ridges to devleop into ovary
2. absence of AMH causes müllerian duct to develop
3. absence of testosterone causes wolffian duct to disappear

development of cardiovascular system

1. vasulogenesis
2. angiogenesis
3. lymphanogiogenesis

vasulogenesis

first assembly of blood vessels from mesodermally derived cells

angiogenesis

formation of blood vessels from pre-existing vasculature

lymphanogiogenesis

formation of new lymphatic vessels from pre-existing lymphatic vessels

regions of the gut

foregut, midgut and hindgut

blood supply of each region of the gut

foregut \= celiac artery
midgut \= superior mesenteric artery
hindgut \= inferior mesenteric artery

development of the stomach

1. distal region of foregut enlarges and broadens ventro-dorsally
2. greater curvature of stomach
3. rotates 90° clockwise
4. lesser curvature
5. rotates superiorly to bend duodenum into C shape

development of lungs

1. ventral out-pocketing of endoderm
2. ventro-caudal growth
3. bifurcation and trifurcation

migration of primordial germ cells

1. travels along hindgut
2. travels through dorsal mesentary
3. splits up to coalesce

structures of the CNS

brain and spinal cord

cells of the CNS (5)

astrocyte, neuron, capillary, microglia, oliogodendrocyte

major sections of CNS (4)

cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum

precentral gyrus

fold forming primary motor cortex

central sulcus

groove dividing major brain regions

postcentral gyrus

fold forming primary sensory cortex

longitudinal fissure

deep groove separating cerebral hemispheres

effect of gyri

increases SA, increasing the number of neurons present for action potentials

meninge layers

dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater

types of dura mater

falx cerebri, tentorium cerebelli, falx cerebelli

production of CSF

produced in ventricles by specialised vascular tissue - choroid plexus

reabsorption of CSF

arachnoid villi/granulations reabsorb CSF into blood back into circulation

organisation of the cerebellum (5)

frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe, insula

function of oliodendrocytes (CNS) and schwann cells (PNS)

to provide insulation to nerve axons through myelin sheaths

white matter

myelinated axons

grey matter

unmyelinated neuron cell bodies, dendrites, short axons and glia

spinal cord development

1. first trimester \= root of first sacral nerve
2. later development \= spinal cord lengths and first sacral nerve grows
3. adult \= conus medullaris forms, CSF in subarachnoid space

ventral roots

axons of motor neurons (anterior)

dorsal roots

axons of sensory neurons (posterior)

stages of spinal reflexes (5)

1. sensory receptor
2. sensory neuron
3. interneuron
4. motor neuron
5. effector organ

sections of spinal nerves (5)

1. cervical nerves
2. thoracic nerves
3. lumbar nerves
4. sacral nerves
5. coccygeal nerves

importance of segmental innervation

underpins standard neurological tests, identifying affected areas post injury

evolutionary advancement of peripheral nerves

comprised of multiple spinal nerves, allowing several segments of nerves to contribute

nerve plexus

network of spinal nerves protecting important muscle groups

somatic nervous system

controls the body's skeletal muscles

automatic nervous system

homeostatic control of organ muscles

types of automatic nervous system (2)

1. sympathetic \= thoracolumbar outflow
2. parasympathetic \= craniosacral outflow

pathways in sympathetic outflow (2)

1. somatic motor pathway \= simple
2. automatic motor pathway \= complicated

functions of the skeletal system (6)

support, protection, movement, mineral homeostasis, blood cell production, triglyceride storage

types of skeletal systems

axial and appendicular

axial skeleton

head, neck and trunk

appendicular skeleton

limbs, pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle

characteristic of bones

vascular (need blood supply) and innervated (contains nerves)

anatomy of bones

compact and spongy bone (trabecular)

function of spongy bone

assists with weight bearing through lines of compressive stress and lines of tensile stress

types of bones (4)

long bone, short bone, flat bone, irregular bone

sections of long bones (3)

1. epiphysis
2. metaphysis
3. diaphysis

medullary cavity

hollow space within diaphysis containing yellow marrow and blood vessels

function of periosteal arteries

supplies periosteum and outer compact bone with blood through many canals

types of cells in bone tissue (2)

osteoblasts, osteoclasts