psych concepts

cognitive dissonance theory

* something conflicts with belief → increased cognitive dissonance
* change behavior, beliefs, attitudes to reduce cognitive dissonance

self-esteem vs self efficacy

* how indv perceives themselves (their value)
* belief about competence/ability

self serving bias vs fundamental attribution error vs actor-observer bias

* if succeed, proud of internal locus of control, if fail blame outside locus of control
* failures of others are based on their fundamental traits/personality
* attribute own actions to external factors but actions of others to internal factors

attribution theory

tendency for indv to infer cause of other’s behavior

* dispositional (internal): causes relate to features of person being considered
* situational (external): causes relate to features of surroundings or social context
* correspondent inference theory: describes attributions made by observing intentional behaviors performed by another person
* fundamental attribution error: bias to make dispositional rather than situational attributions

incentive theory of motivation

motivation driven by external rewards

instinct theory of motivation

innate behavior to stimuli

dissociative disorders

disruptions to memory and identity

* dissociative identity disorder: 2+ distinct personalities, amnesia
* dissociative amnesia: can’t remember past experience,

arousal theory of motivation

* maintain optimal arousal
* performance vs arousal graph → bell curve
* yerkes-dodson law: performance is best at moderate level of arousal

maslow’s hierarchy of needs

* self fulfillment needs
* self
* psychological needs
* esteem
* love and belonging
* basic needs
* safety
* physiological

psychoanalytical defense mechanisms

projection: project unacceptable thoughts onto someone/thing else

denial

rationalization: making excuses

regression: acting like a child

repression: blocking bad thoughts from conscious

displacement: shifting anger to safe target (punching pillow)

sublimation: transform bad thoughts, vent anger thru boxing

reaction formation: behaving in opposite manner (loving a person you despise)

role strain

competing expectations within one role

role conflict

competing expectations for 2+ roles

role exit

disengage from current social role and replaces with a new one

types of therapy (CBT, Psychoanalytic, Humanistic)

Cognitive Behavioral: change negative thoughts thru desensitization and self-talk

Psychoanalytical: uncover unconscious conflict, free association dream etc

humanistic: empowerment, move to self actualization, positivity

expectancy theory of motivation

3 parts lead to motivation

* expectancy (will effort lead to success)
* instrumentality (capability to achieve)
* valence (value of reward)

PTSD

exposure to trauma, hyperarousal

false positive and negative

false positive: null is true and reject (Type I)

false negative: null is false, fail to reject (Type II)

drive reduction theory of motivation

* motivation to fulfill biological/physio needs
* maintain homeostasis by reducing tension

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

3 stages

* alarm stage (dip in resistance to stress)
* resistance stage (bell curve increasing resistance to stress)
* exhaustion stage (downward resistance to stress → burnout)

4 psychoactive drugs and pathway

mesolimbic pathway (nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle, ventral tegmental area)

* stimulants: speed up CNS function, elevates mood, ex amphetamine, cocaine
* depressants: slow down CNS function, ex alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines
* narcotic analgesics: lessens sensation of pain, ex morphine, codeine, heroin
* hallucinogens: triggers mind-altering effects, ex LSD

language areas in the brain

* broca’s area: speech production
* aphasia: difficult to speak but comprehensible
* wernicke’s area: language comprehension
* aphasai: can’t understand
* arcuate fasciculus: connects wernicke and broca’a area
* conduction aphasia, can’t repeat words

neuroimaging techniques

EEG: electrodes on scalp, connect to amplifier, measure voltage fluctuations in brain over time

CT: combines multiple xrays at dif angles, gives detailed structure of internal organs and tissues at single point in time

fMRI: records changes in blood oxygenation in brain over time

PET: scanner detects radioactive tracer, records changes in glucose metabolism over time

limbic system

amygdala: primal emotions

hypothalamus: homeostasis, responsible for physiological component of emotion

hippocampus: memory consolidation

cingulate gyrus: emotional sensory input

mirror neurons + vicarious emotions

* type of neuron fires when an individual both observes and performs a behavior (impt for observational learning and vicarious emotions)
* when observer intuits the feeling that another might be experiencing

gentrification

redevelopment of lower-income urban city

* influx of higher-income residents → neighborhood redevelopment → increased housing prices

Displacement of lower-income residents

stereotypes

prejudice

discrimination

stereotype threat

self fulfilling prophecy

ethnocentrism

* generalized beliefs (good or bad) about social groups
* ==based on cognition==
* negative belief and feeling about someone based on membership in a social group
* ==based on emotion==
* negative treatment of someone based on membership in social group
* ==based on action==
* anxiety experienced by indv who feels judged based on negative stereotype about a group they belong to
* stereotype creating expectation of a group, which creates conditions that lead to confirmation of this stereotype
* make judgements about other cultures based on values of own culture

Hawthorne effect

research subjects act differently bc they know they’re being observed

intelligence: fluid vs crystallized

fluid: ability to apply logic and creative thinking to new situations

crystallized: ability to apply facts and acquired knowledge to situations

Erikson’s 8 stages of psychosocial development

1. infancy (0-1): trust vs mistrust
2. early childhood (1-3): autonomy vs shame/doubt
3. play age (3-6): initiative vs guilt
4. school age (6-12): industry vs inferiority
5. adolescence (12-20): identity vs isolation
6. early adulthood (20-40): intimacy vs isolation
7. middle age (40-65): generativity vs stagnation
8. old age (65+): integrity vs despair

Bias: self-serving, confirmation, belief perseverance

self-serving bias: indv attributes success to internal factors but blames failure on external factors

confirmation: we tend to favor info confirming beliefs and ignore info contradicting those beliefs

belief perseverance: type of cognitive bias in which person holds belief even when confronting strong evidence to contrary

4 methods of problem solving

* insight: aha moment, occurs infrequently
* trial and error: time-consuming, unsystematic
* heuristics: strategy or shortcut yielding approximate results, fast, error-prone
* algorithms: precise logical rule yielding exact results, accurate, systematic, time-consuming

memory retrieval, types, proactive vs retroactive interference, context-dependent memory, memory decay

Retrieval

* recall: retrieval of information previously encoded
* free vs cued (hint)
* immediate vs delayed (time when info learned)
* recognition: correct identification of info exposed to (multiple choice)
* relearning: re-encoding info previously learned but forgotten

Types:

* episodic (buying first car)
* flashbulb (where you were when 9/11 happened)
* source (who announced the info)
* semantic (names of ppl, color, vocab)
* stable with age
* procedural (riding bike, driving car)
* stable with age

proactive interference: previously learned info interferes with one’s ability to recall new info

retroactive interference: when recent info interferes with one’s ability to recall older info

context dependent memory: indv better able to remember info in same context that they learned it

memory decay: initial rate of decay fastest, rate of decay slows over time

self-concept

self-fulfilling prophecy

social networks and groups

social capital vs mobility

social loafing

self-concept: beliefs about oneself (race, gender, ability etc)

self-fulfilling prophecy: belief about something that influences behavior of person who believes it, which causes the belief to become true

social networks: webs of interaction, nodes are indv

* as group size increases, more social ties, more stable but less intimate
* tetrad least stable, 5+ ppl → groupthink, social loafing etc occurs
* social capital: person’s network of ppl that can be converted into economic gain
* social mobility: mvmt of individuals, groups, families btn/within status categories in society
* social loafing: when indv exerts less effort while working in a group vs working alone

somatic symptom disorder

1+ somatic sx that causes disproportionate concern

illness anxiety disorder

preoccupation with having serious medical condition

conversion disorder

unexplained sx affecting motor or sensory function

dominant culture, subculture, counterculture, cultural relativism

* learned values, beliefs, behaviors shared by most in society
* values and norms align with dominant culture, but group is distinct
* values and norms oppose dominant culture
* studying social groups and cultures on their own terms

modernization, secularization, fundamentalism

* reduced impt of religion with industrialization
* reduced power of religion as religious involvement declines
* renewed commitment to traditional religion as a reaction to secularization

cultural transmission vs social reproduction vs cultural diffusion

* passing of cultural elements btn generations
* transmission of society’s values btn generations
* spread of culture from one group of ppl to another

mcdonaldization

extreme efficiency and rationalization produce negative consequences in society

theories of sociology

1. ==functionalism==: society = organism, each pt of society works to maintain dynamic equilibrium (homeostasis)


1. macro, by Durkheim and Parsons
2. ==Conflict theory==: society is struggle for limited resources, inequality based on social class


1. macro, Karl Marx, Max Weber
2. when resources unevenly distributed across social groups (rich/poor)
3. ==Social constructionism==: social actors define real, knowledge based on interactions
* reality is created thru interactions, resulting in agreed-on, shared meanings
* money has meaning bc indv in society agreed on that meaning, money is a social construct
4. ==symbolic interactionism==: meaning and value attached to symbols, individual interactions based on these symbols


1. micro, charles cooley, george herbert mead
2. Dramaturgical perspective: indv behave as actors follow social norms in front of others
5. ==rational choice/social exchange==: indv behavior and interactions attempt to maximize personal gain and minimize personal cost


1. micro
6. ==feminist==: examines gender inequality in society
7. ==Frustration-aggression theory==: indv exhibit violence as result of having goal or effort defeated
8. ==elaboration likelihood model of persuasion==: when an indv is uninterested in a message, superficial factors are most persuasive

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Mead’s theory of social self

preparatory stage (infancy, toddler)

* learn thru imitation, no sense of self

play stage (preschool)

* learn thru role taking, finish developing I

game stage (school)

* learn thru understanding all roles and overarching rules, finish developing me
* interaction with others

division of labor

specialization of tasks in society that are interdependent

intersectionality

multiple, interconnected social identities

age, sex, race, class

ethnography

qualitative method for scientific study of human social phenomena

types and degrees of kinship

type:

* consanguineal: genetic relationship (bio parents)
* affinal: marriage
* fictive: social ties that are not consanguineal/affinal (adopted children)

degrees

* primary: mother
* secondary: mother’s brother
* tertiary: mother’s uncle

dramaturgical approach

impression management

indv create images of themselves in same way that actors perform role in front of an audience

maintenance of public image thru various strategies

theories of emotion

6 universal emotions

3 components of emtions

Theories of emotion


1. Common Sense: stimulus → subjective experience → body response
2. James-Lange: stimulus → body response → subjective experience
3. Schachter-Singer: stimulus → body response + interpretation → subjective experience


1. emotion is result of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal
4. Cannon-Bard: physiological arousal and emotions occur simultaneously

6 universal emotions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, surprise

3 components of emotion:

* cognitive: mental processing of emotion (thoughts, beliefs, expectations, rationalization)
* behavioral: immediate outward reaction, involuntary and automatic (smiling, gasping)
* physiological: bodily process with emotion (HR, RR, sweating)

sleep stages

* awake: beta and alpha waves
* stage 1: theta waves, light sleep
* stage 2: theta waves, sleep spindles and K complexes
* stage 3/4: delta waves, slow-wave sleep, dreams, declarative memory consolidation
* REM: mostly beta waves, awake physiologically, dreams, paralyzed, procedural memory consolidation

social facilitation

tendency to perform at a different level when others are around

deindividuation

loss of self awareness in large groups, can lead to drastic changes in behavior

bystander effect

in a group, indv less likely to help someone in need

group polarization

making decisions in a group that are more extreme than indv

groupthink

make decisions based on ideas formed within group w/o considering outside ideas

assimilation

one culture begins to melt into another

racialization

* process by which one group designates another group with a racial identity, based on shared group qualities
* designating group has more social power and exerts social control over designated group which has less social power

social control

exertion of influence by group to ensure behavior of indv conforms to that of group

sociological approaches to aging

activity: remaining physical/socially active improves quality of life for older adults

continuity: older adults attempts to maintain habits/behaviors from youth

disengagement: older adults withdraw from social relationships

life course: aging viewed holistically with social/bio/cultural context

dependency ratio

(#child dependents + #retired dependents) / #ppl in workforce x100

* proportion of unproductive to productive members of society

demographic transition model

transition of society from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates

5 stages based on industrialization, urbanization, development

fertility rates: total, crude, general, age-specific

total: avg number of children born per women during her lifetime

crude: number of live births per year for every 1000 members of a population

general: total # live births per year for every 1000 women of childbearing age in population

age-specific: #live births per year for 1000 women in certain age group in population

population pyramids

expanding: high birth rate, increasing pop size, short life expectancy

stationary: low birth rate, stable pop size, long life expectancy

contracting: very low birth rate, decreasing pop size, long life expectancy

in vs out group, primary vs secondary vs reference group

in: group which indv identifies with

out: group which indv does not identify with

reference: group indv compares self with

primary: group of indv who are emotionally clsoe

secondary: group of indv who come together to accomplish somethin

status

position in society to classify indv

* ascribed → involuntarily assigned
* achieved → voluntarily earned
* occupations are achieved
* master → primary identity

socioeconomic status (SES) parts: class, power, social capital, social reproduction, poverty

class: ppl with shared SES characteristics

power: ability to control and influence others

social capital: investment ppl make in society in return for economic or collective rewards

social reproduction: passing on of social inequality to other generations

poverty: low SES (poverty line is at minimum income required to acquire minimum necessities of life)

social inequality

results from uneven distribution of wealth and resources across geographic area

ex. low-income subsidized housing projects (concentrate lower-income indv into one area that is geographically separated from higher income areas)

authority: traditional, charismatic, rational-legal

obedience

authority: whether others believe that the power is legitimate

* traditional: comes from longstanding patterns in society (king)
* charismatic: personal appeal (gandhi)
* rational-legal: professional position person holds (doctor)

type of conformity, indv carries out orders given by authority figure

medicalization

defining human behaviors or characteristics as medical conditions (results from shifting attitudes, new scientific evidence, or new treatment)

characterizing condition/behavior as medical illness

ex. menopause is a natural condition, but now viewed as deficiency in hormones to be treated with medication

socioeconomic gradient in health

positive correlation btn SES and health outcomes

false vs class consciousness

false: when indv from lower classes adopt misleading views of upper class and accept status quo

* “this article is right, my poor health is entirely my fault”

class: involves recognition of class structure and identification with one’s own social class

* “this article doesn’t consider how much harder it is for people in my social class to see a doctor”

incidence

(new cases / population at risk) per time

prevalence

(#cases (new or old)/ total population ) per time

morbidity vs mortality

morbidity: burden or degree of illness associated with given disease

mortality: deaths caused by given disease

organizations: normative, utilitarian, coercive

normative: shared values and goals (voluntary)

utilitarian: compensation

coercive: involuntary membership

normative vs informational social influence

when idv conforms to fit in or avoid rejection by others

informational: ppl conform to what others are doing bc dont know what to do and believe others do

life course approach

how psych, bio, and sociocultural factors across lifetime have cumulative effect on health outcomes

biomedical approach

emphasize role of physio causes and ignores nonbiological influences (social factors)

sick role theory

functionalist approach, legitimizes illness as socially acceptable deviance, someone who is sick has a different set of rights/responsibilities

* illness is socially acceptable form of deviance

illness experience

symbolic interactionist approach, how ppl incorporate their illness as part of self identity

aggregate

collection of individuals who share common location but do not identify as a group (all the ppl in a store at 11AM)

reliable vs valid

* consistency of an experiment/measure → similar results every time
* valid: how accurate results are

religiosity vs religious affiliation

* religiosity: extent to which religious doctrine is internalized and incorporated into indv’s life
* religious affiliation: specific religious groups to which indv identifies

functionalism: manifest vs latent functions

manifest: intended obvious purpose of social structure

latent: unintended result of social structure

residential segregation and environmental injustice

* physical separation of groups by social characteristics
* segregated neighborhoods experience different degrees of environmental benefits

major theories of human development

* personality
* sigmund freud: 5 psychosexual stages, focused on childhood
* unresolved childhood conflicts impacts adult personality
* based on tensions caused by libido, with failure at any given stage leading to fixation
* erik erikson’s 8 psychosocial stages thruout life
* unresolved crisis at any age impacts adult personality
* personality shaped by social interaction thru lifetime


* cognition
* Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory
* child’s cog development based on social interaction
* Jean Piaget
* 4 universal stages of childhood cognitive development
* cognitive development is based on age


* morality
* lawrence kohlberg
* six stages of lifespan moral development
* most indv don’t progress past stage 3/4

kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning development

resolve moral dilemmas

six stages divided into 3 phases:

* preconventional: reward/punishment and self-interest
* conventional: pleasing others and law/order
* post-conventional: social contract and universal principle

piaget vs vygotsky cognitive development theories

piaget: nature, development based on interactions with environment (independent discovery)

* 4 stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

vygotsky: development in children due to interactions with others

* zone of proximal development: area of learning where one cannot progress on their own, but can with assistance from knowledgeable other

personality disorders

patterns of inflexible, maladaptive behavior that cause distress or impaired functioning

* cluster A: (odd eccentric) paranoid, schizotypal, schizoid
* cluster B: (dramatic, emotional, erratic, wild) antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
* cluster C: (anxious, fearful, worried) avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive

social mobility

intragenerational:

* horizontal: doctor moves practice from atlanta to chicago
* upward: nurse goes to school for MD
* downward: doctor loses license to practice

intergenerational:

* horizontal: sons of doctors become doctors
* upward: son of high school dropout becomes doctor
* downward: sons of doctors become high school drop out

social stratification

hierarchical organization of indv in society based on social class (income), social status (reputation), and power

bipolar disorders

mania: elevated/irritable mood and increased energy

depressive episodes: sadness, hopelessness, lack of interest in activities

borderline personality disorders

instability in mood, sense of self and relationships

fear of abandonment, impulsive behavior

availability vs representativeness heuristic

availability: how easily something comes to memory

representativeness: how well something matches mental prototype

* ex women dressed in scrubs is a nurse rather than surgeon

looking-glass self concept

indv base sense of self on how others view them

foot in the door vs door in the face

* small favor, yes to big favor
* big favor first, no to small favor

halo effect

type of cognitive bias in which our overall impression of a person influences how we feel

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis aka linguistic relativity

language influences our perception and cognition (can’t identify indigo vs blue if don’t have two dif words for them)

nativist hypthesis

language is innate process hardwired in the brain, as long as humans are exposed to language during a critical period in early life, language development is biologically predetermined

opponent-process theory

color information from cones is combined so that we perceive three opposing pairs of colors: black/white, blue/yellow, red/green

* don’t see both colors of the pair simultaneously

young-Helmholtz theory aka trichromatic theory

all colors we see are result of combined activity of 3 types of photoreceptors: those that respond to short (blue), medium (green) and long (red) wavelengths of light