NAF Final Exam Review

Describe the components of blood, the determinants of blood types, and the compatibilities of the different blood types.

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Four main components of blood

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Red Blood Cells

Uses the protein hemoglobin that binds to oxygen and carbon dioxide. As a result, these red blood cells carry oxygen and carbon dioxide.

White Blood Cells

Protect you from toxins and invaders. Also, white blood cells would leave the bloodstream and go directly to the places where they’re needed.

Platelets (yellow)

Platelets are fragments of cells produced in the bone marrow and break down into thousands of pieces; as a result, when these cells are needed, they pinch off the cell membrane and trap contents, leading to blood clotting.

Plasma cells

Fluid part of blood, transports nutrients, hormones, ions, waste products, proteins with special functions (blood clotting), and other substances your body produces.

ABO and Rh blood typing for donors and recipients

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Rh positive

Could receive different antigens, including positive Rh.

Rh negative

Can only receive specific antigens that are specific to the body, meaning can’t mix in with Rh positive.

Identify the major arteries and veins

Subclavian Arteries and veins, Carotid Arteries, Jugular veins (14.4), and Thoracic Aorta, abdominal aorta, coronary arteries, right and left common iliac arteries and veins (14.4)

Identify and describe the structures of the heart

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1. 4 chambers
2. Septum
3. Apex
4. Valves

Explain the major functions of the cardiovascular system and its structure

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Heart

It pumps blood around your body as your heart beats. This blood sends oxygen and nutrients to all parts of your body, and carries away unwanted carbon dioxide and waste products.

Arteries

Carries blood away from the heart to other parts of the body (brain, legs, and lungs). They have thick walls as well.

Capillaries

Supply nutrients to all parts of the body and allows the exchange of substances. Also, connect the arteries to veins in structures called capillary beds. Along with the exchange of as and nutrients, also plays a role in regulating body temperature and blood pressure. Additionally, they have thin walls.

Veins

bring blood towards the heart from capillary beds, where it can be sent to the lungs for oxygen. Veins also have thin walls and valves.

Blood

transporting oxygen and nutrients to the lungs and tissues. forming blood clots to prevent excess blood loss. carrying cells and antibodies that fight infection. bringing waste products to the kidneys and liver, which filter and clean the blood.

Systemic Circuit

It carries oxygen and nutrients to the cells and picks up carbon dioxide and waste products. Carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle, through the arteries, to the capillaries in the tissues of the body.

Pulmonary Circuit

Transports oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle to the lungs, where blood picks up a new blood supply. Then it returns the oxygen-rich blood to the left atrium.

Pericardium

Mechanical protection for the heart and big vessels, and a lubrication to reduce friction between the heart and the surrounding structures.

Display understanding of the path by which blood flows through the heart

Blood will travel through the vena cava (superior and inferior), enters through the right atrium, and from the right atrium will travel through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. From the right ventricle, it would get pumped out through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, and the lungs would pick up oxygen and the blood would return to the heart through the pulmonary veins and go into the left atrium. Then from the left atrium, it would go through the bicuspid valve, then the left ventricle, and will get pumped out through the aorta to the different places of the body, which would go through arteries to veins and back to the vena cava.

**Describe the features and relationship between pulse and blood pressure during a cardiac cycle**

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Systolic pressure

When the heart beats allow for more blood from the heart to pass through causing more blood to contract and having higher blood pressure.

Diastolic Pressure

The blood pressure when it's at rest, or not beating.

Heart Rate

The amount of beats of the heart per minute (beats/min).

Normal vs hypertension BP

Normal blood pressure is when your blood pressure is lower than 120/80 mm Hg most of the time. High blood pressure (hypertension) is when one or both of your blood pressure readings are higher than 130/80 mm Hg most of the time.

Describe blood disorders and major diseases and abnormalities of the cardiovascular system

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Atherosclerosis

The buildup of plaque in the arteries.

Myocardial infarction (Heart Attack)

Cutting off of blood flow.

Cerebrovascular accident/Stroke

A prevention of blood passing through the brain.

Arrhythmia

Irregular heartbeat.

Anemia

A condition in which you don’t have enough red blood cells, or your red blood cells don’t contain enough iron or hemoglobin to carry as much oxygen as you need.

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**Identify and describe the structures of the respiratory system**

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Nasal Cavity

Lined with membranes that contain lots of small veins close to the surface. These membranes also produce mucus, which lines the respiratory organs and keeps them moist fends off microorganisms, and traps dust and other particles or filtering air

Pharynx

Muscular tube behind the nasal cavity and the mouth, and above the larynx. Where both air and the food that enters through the body.

Larynx

This tube is considered the voice box because it contains the vocal cords, which are membranes that line the larnyx. The air passes through your vocal cords, which could make the vocal cords vibrate. Also, it is below the pharynx.

Epiglottis

A flap of cartilage that covers the larynx so that food doesn’t go into your lungs.

Trachea

Inferior to the larynx and is also considered the windpipe. The posterior side or back wall is made of smooth muscle, and the rest of the tracheal walls are rings of stiff cartilage a hollow tube, that ensures there is an open pathway for air.

Bronchus

When the trachea reaches the lungs it branches to this. Made of cartilage and smooth muscle, but smaller and direct incoming air specifically into the lungs. Each right and left, leads it to the right or left lung, where it leads to smaller and smaller branches called the bronchial tree, where gas exchange takes place.

Lungs

The process of gas exchange is called respiration (or breathing). 

Diaphragm

Inspiration:


1. The diaphragm is moving downward and muscle contracts
2. It allows an increase in volume and decreases pressure in the thoracic cavity,
3. Allowing air to move into the lungs.

Expiration:


1. The diaphragm is moving upwards and is at rest
2. Decreases volume and increases pressure in the thoracic cavity
3. Causing air molecules to move out of the lungs.

Pleural Sac

 Aids optimal functioning of the lugs during breathing. It transmits movements of the chest wall to the lungs, particularly during heavy breathing.

Explain the process of gas exchange and respiration

During internal inspiration oxygen from the lungs diffuses from the capillary to the body cell from high concentration to low concentration, while the carbon dioxide diffuses from the body cell to the capillary due to concentration. For external respiration, blood from the body moves the high amount of carbon dioxide to diffuse from the capillary to the alveoli because of high to low concentration again, causing carbon dioxide to move out of the body, and allowing oxygen that we breathe in to diffuse from the alveoli to the capillary, leading back into internal respiration causing a whole entire loop.

**Explain how common disorders of the respiratory system affect normal function**

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Asthma

A chronic (long-term) condition that affects the airways in the lungs. The airways, tubes that carry air in and out of your lungs, can become inflamed and narrowed at times, making it harder for air to flow out of your airways when you breathe out.

Bronchitis

An infection of the central airways of the lungs (bronchi) causes them to become irritated and inflamed.

Breathing in a lot of cold air or other irritating substances can give a person about acute bronchitis. it only lasts for a short time. Chronic means that it persists over a long time smoking because it damages the lining, causing excess mucus.

Pneumonia

An infection of the lungs that may be caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi. The infection causes the lungs' air sacs (alveoli) to become inflamed and fill up with fluid or pus. That can make it hard for the oxygen you breathe in to get into your bloodstream.

Tuberculosis

A disease caused by germs that are spread from person to person through the air. TB usually affects the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body, such as the brain, the kidneys, or the spine. 

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Latent TB is when the person infected with TB can go years without showing any symptoms and cannot spread it, while active TB is when the symptoms of tuberculosis begin to appear and are able to spread it.

Emphysema

 A lung condition that causes shortness of breath. The air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) are damaged. Over time, the inner walls of the air sacs weaken and rupture — creating larger air spaces instead of many small ones.

COPD

Collectively of Bronchitis and Emphysema.

Describe the body’s defenses that make up nonspecific and specific immunity

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Physical Barriers

\-First line of innate defense that keep harmful invaders out

\-Hair, Skin, cilia, and mucus (ex.)

\-Organs have cells or substances that serve as protective barriers

Leukocytes

\-White blood cells that are made in the bone marrow

\-Second line of innate defense

\-Go to the lymph nodes, or to the thymus first, as part of their maturation process

\-identifies what should be in your body and what shouldn’t by recognizing the antigens.

Neutrophil (Leukocyte)

Common white blood cell

\-Very mobile, quick to attack invaders

\-Roams through circulatory system, ready to enter tissues where and when it’s needed

\-Lives for a few hours to a few days

Eosinophil (Leukocyte)

Engulfs pathogens or compounds that have been identified by other cells

\- Lives about 8-12 days.

Macrophage (Leukocyte)

\-Long-lived, large cells

\-Some stay in specific tissues

\-Others migrate to a site where they’re needed

\-Live months to years

Natural Killer cell (Leukocyte)

\-attack cancer cells and cells infected by viruses

\-kill their target cells by secreting chemicals that cause the target cell’s membrane to disintegrate.

Complement (Protein/chemicals)

\-Proteins in blood plasma

\-bind to the membranes of foreign cells

\-when bind the complement proteins become activated.

\-make tiny holes in the foreign cell membrane, killing the cell.

Interferon (Protein/chemicals)

\-Proteins that “interfere” with the activity of viruses

\-Cells infected with a virus secrete interferon, which then tells close cells to take defensive steps against a viral attack

Histamine/Kinin (Protein/chemicals)

\-Damaged cells release chemicals called histamines and kinins

\-The inflammatory chemicals are the security system’s warning that there’s a break-in

\-They start off a set of responses that result in inflammation

\-Cause blood vessels near the injury to dilate

\-cause capillary walls to leak allowing plasma and neutrophils can easily leave the blood and go to the space between cells.

\-Responses are redness, heat, and swelling of inflammation.

Pyrogens (Proteins/chemicals)

\-When white blood cells meet certain pathogens, they secrete these chemicals (pyrogens).

\-Pyrogens reset your body’s thermostat so that you heat up

Lymphocytes

\-Cells that can recognize specific antigens

\-After a lymphocyte met it’s antigen match, it complete it’s maturation.

B-Cells (Lymphocyte)

\-Releases antibodies

\-Maturing while still in the bone

Humoral Response (B-Cell

\-Released antibodies from B cells that circulate body fluids.

\- Begins when B cells encounter their antigen match

Memory Cells (B-Cell)

\- B cell clones that don’t become plasma cells

\- Kick the system back into high gear when they meet the same antigen again

\-Ability to recognize and fend off invaders as a result of having met them before (immunity)

Plasma Cells (B-Cell)

\-Clones from B cells

\-Circulate within the blood

\-Produces billions of copies of the same Antibodies

\-By producing so many, the plasma cells create a swarm of protection against that particular antigen

Antibodies (B-Cell)

\-Proteins that bind with antigens

\-Each antibody has the same specific antigen match as the B cell that gave rise to it.

\-When binding to the antigens, they deactivate them.

\-Antibodies may bind that block the ability of a cell or virus that harm your body’s cells.

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T-Cells

\-Similar to B cells, T cells become fully active only when they meet their antigen match.

\-Can’t bind with antigens on their own.

\-Need antigens presented to them by antigen-presenting cells, or APCs.

\-Made in the bone and migrate to the thymus to begin their maturation.

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Cellular Response:

\-T cells produce many other types of cells that take on different roles

Antigen presenting cell (T-Cell)

Engulf substances or organisms that have antigens and move bits of the antigen to their cell membranes

\-Present the antigen bits, like memos with instructions, to the appropriate T cells.

Memory T cells

Antigen-specific T cells that remain long-term after an infection has been eliminated. Are quickly converted into large numbers of effector T cells upon reexposure to the specific invading antigen, thus providing a rapid 

Helper T-Cell

\-Unlike B cells, T cells make many different types of clones, with different roles.

\-Send out the call to many other types of immune cells

Killer T-Cells

\-Attack cancerous cells and cells infected with a virus

\-Some become memory T cells, conferring immunity

Regulatory T-Cells

\-Once antigen has been destroyed, regulatory T cells tell all the immune channels to wind down their operations

\-If their problems or in the absence can lead to allergies and autoimmune conditions

Explain how diseases and disorders of the immune system, including AIDS and autoimmunity, affect normal function

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Rheumatoid Arthritis

\-Immune system attack cells in the membrane that lines joints between bones

\-Cause an inflammation response, making it painful

\-Inflammation overtime affect other organs, like the eyes, lungs, and blood vessels

\-Connective tissues and even the ends of bones are affected.

Type 1 Diabetes

\-Immune system destroys the cells in the pancreas that produce insulin

\-Have antigens on the beta cells that the immune system sees as a threat (for all autoimmune conditions)

Allergies

\-Body over-responds to a foreign (outside) substance that’s not actually harmful.

\-Reactions to specific antigens or to antigens that the immune system have mistaken for something else

\-Some involve only B cells and antibodies, other in T cells.

\-Misdirected use of your T and B cells’ ability to remember antigens they’ve been exposed to

\-Allergens are something that provokes an allergic response.

HIV/AIDS

HIV

\-Destroys helper T cells

\-Breaks the system that calls killer T cells and some B cells into action

\-Huddles in lymph nodes and reproduces

\-Invade other parts of the body giving AIDS

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AIDS

\-Causes swollen lymph nodes

Drug induced immune deficiency

\-Suppresses the immune system to help a health condition

\-Reduce activity of the immune system

\-Without its immune system may attack the cells of the transplanted organ

\-Additionally, to reduce inflammation and other painful conditions

\-Patients are usually vulnerable to infectious disease, parasites, and cancers.

Identify the organs of the lymphatic system

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Thymus

\-A gland in the chest

\-Supplies a set of hormones, thymosins, which cause special immune cells (T Cells) to mature

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Spleen

\-Located in the left and a bit posterior to your stomach.

\-Biggest collection of lymphoid tissues

\-Filters blood, such as filtering out pathogens, cancerous cells, and breaks down old red blood cells

\-Contains specialized immune cells that destroy pathogens and cancer cells, and send signals to kick off immune processes.

Lymph Node

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\-Filter stations of the immune system

\-Could be considered as lymph tissues as well

\-Clean lymph of toxins, pathogens, and cancer cells before it is sent back into the blood stream.

\-Inside are immune cells

\-Lymph nodes cluster in places, such as armpits, groin, and throat.

Lymphatic vessels

\-Unlike the circulatory system, where blood flows both away from the heart and to the heart, the lymphatic system is always carried toward the heart.

\-lymph moves through its vessels, being pushed through when you move your muscles and using valves to keep things from flowing backward.

\-Once lymph has been cleaned, it continues on its way toward the heart, passing through larger and larger vessels

\-It is reunited with the blood as lymph from each side of your body is emptied into the right and left subclavian veins. Lymph becomes plasma once again, and it goes with the rest of your blood into the heart.

Lymph

\-Fluid that’s leaked from blood vessels (or the capillaries) , and returns that fluid to the blood.

\-Lymph is also sent through organs that clean it of pathogens, unfamiliar chemicals, and damaged cells.

Identify the parts of the digestive system

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Describe the process of digestion

Four processes, move onto the next slides.

Ingestion

Taking food in

Organs involved:

Mouth-Teeth chew and tongue mixes food to increase \n its surface area and prepare it for swallowing

Pharynx-Propels food toward the stomach through

peristalsis

Esophagus-

Propels food toward the stomach through

peristalsis

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Digestion

Breaking food down into absorbable and/or usable molecules

Organs involved:

Salivary glands-Contains digestive enzymes

Stomach-Cells secrete acid and enzymes that start

chemical digestion of proteins

Small intestine (Duodenum) -Continues chemical digestion and uses its large surface area to absorb nutrients

Liver-Produces bile, which breaks down large fat \n globules into smaller ones, increasing their \n surface area

Pancreas-

Produces pancreatic juice containing digestive

enzymes

Absorption

Getting usable molecules from the digestive tract into the bloodstream

Organs Involved:

Small intestine (Jejunum and Ileum)-

Nutrients and water pass through the cells in the \n villi and from there into the nearby capillaries

Defecation

Getting rid of wastes

Organs Involved:

\*\*Large intestine-\*\*Prepares feces to be removed from the body by absorbing water from them and getting rid of bile, bacteria, and indigestible food

Rectum-Feces move into the rectum and the brain gets a

signal that they’re there

Anus-The brain consciously decides to open the \n voluntary sphincter, and peristalsis pushes the \n feces out

Describe the roles and metabolism of major nutrients

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Carbohydrates

The main source of energy for everything your body does. All your tissues can use this source for energy and are the only molecule our brains can use.


1. Starts in the the mouth ( Salivary Amylase)
2. Continues in stomach with HCl and peristalsis
3. Small intestine (duodenum)  takes chyme from stomach and mixes with Pancreatic Amylase
4. Small intestine absorbs glucose into the bloodstream

Proteins

Provide the building blocks for new proteins and enzymes that make many of your cellular functions possible.


1. Starts in the stomach with HCL and Pepsin
2. Small intestine (duodenum)  takes chyme from the stomach and mixes with carboxypeptidase from the pancreas.
3. Small intestine absorb amino acids in to the bloodstream

Fats

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Become stored energy but can also become parts of cell membranes and protective tissues.


1. Starts in the the mouth (Lingual Lipase)
2. Continues in stomach with HCl and peristalsis
3. Small intestine (duodenum)  takes chyme from the stomach and mixes with pancreatic lipase.
4. Small intestine absorb fats (Mainly triglyceride) into the lymphatic system to the liver

Water

1. Spinal fluids are mostly water
2. Plasma is mostly water
3. Dissolves water soluble nutrients
4. Controls body temperature
5. Controls blood pressure

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Micronutrients

Fat Soluble Vitamins:

Vitamins dissolve in fat, and your body is able to store them in fatty tissues, hydrophobic. (Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Vitamin K) Have too much and it become toxic.

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Water Soluble Vitamins:

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Vitamins dissolve in your body fluids; you lose some each day and must replace them through the food you eat, hydrophilic. (B Vitamins, Vitamin C)

Minerals

Are inorganic substances, often ions of a particular element, that are as vital as vitamins are to your body’s functions, and work with vitamins to make important reactions happen in your body. Are absorbed by the body better if they’re consumed in your food rather than as supplements.