GEOG study guide flashcards

geography

the study of place and can be pursued in the context of almost any discipline

scientific method

involves an iterative cycle of observation, hypothesis, experimentation, observation of results, and construction of new hypotheses. *essential in geography

science

deals with measurable systematic principles

empiricism

the pursuit of knowledge purely through experience, particularly by observation and sometimes experimentation

what part of the systematic principles in scientific method allows for prediction?

the creation of replicable results

what kind of activity it science?

a “negative activity” because we learn by disproving hypotheses, but can never truly prove something “true”

reductionist analysis vs. synthesis analysis

-reductionist is breaking the problem into testable pieces w/ results and synthesis is when a lot of these pieces come together, analyzing the results to form a greater picture of the whole

GIS

computational tool that allows us to put diverse spatial datasets together to address problems through analysis or synthesis

deciduous tree

tree that loses leaves in autumn and regrows in the fall

habitat

natural community of plants and landforms that provide food and shelter for organisms living in it

ecosystem

describes all organisms and flows of food and energy that support those organisms in a given area

how can you prove the Earth is round?

on the ground using the horizon

projection

used to represent the Earth on a flat map

coordinate systems

several are used to represent Earth including latitude and longitude angular coordinates and UTM coordinates (which use northing and easting meter)

t or f- a map cannot have multiple coordinate systems on the same map

false- it can

How does a compass work and what is the major issue with this?

compass aligns itself w/ Earth’s magnetic field.

-Earth’s magnetic axis is at an angle to the rotational axis which makes magnetic and geographic north different. this is called declination and needs to be taken into consideration when comparing compass and map measurements.

GPS

global positioning system- system of satellites, ground stations, and receivers that allow one to identify their position on the surface of Earth

difference between accuracy and precision

accuracy is the closeness of measurements to the true value you’re measuring. repeated measurements will improve precision, but not accuracy bc precision is based on repeatability of results

low accuracy, low precision

-both random and systemic errors

-results: scattered points

low accuracy + high precision

-systemic errors

-result: cluster of points in same area, just not in the right area

high accuracy + low precision

-random errors

-results: scattered relatively close to real location

high accuracy + high precision

-no errors

-all points are close to real location

how does trilateration work in terms of the space portion of GPS?

*the more satellites you have, the better you can find your location:

-1 satellite locates you on a sphere

-2 locates you on a circle at the intercept of two spheres

-3 establishes 2 possible pts at the intersection of the three spheres

-4 locates your position

space segment of GPS

gets data from a constellation of 24 satellites orbiting the Earth. there are 6 diff orbital planes, each with 4 satellites.

in short, how is location determined by the receiver using a GPS

precise clocks and the principle of trilateration are used to measure the distance between the use and a combination of 3 or more satellites. Distance is measured according to the time needed for radio signals transmitted by satellites to reach the receiver.

*time is most important thing here

temperature

measure of the heat content in the atmosphere (or any other material)

insolation

the measure of incoming solar radiation and varies on a daily and seasonal basis

albedo is brightness/darkness of a surface, measuring how much light

is reflected from a surface vs. absorbed by the surface. (the lighter the surface, the higher the albedo)

Four main affecting factors in air temp

(1) insolation - MAIN FACTOR-

(2) surface type - albedo - (high albedo = low absorption of solar radiation)

(3) coastal vs. interior locations- bc water moderates temp and is relatively stable in temp itself, coastal temps always have less range than inland (always more moderate temp on coast)

(4) elevation - going up in elevation = cooler temps (thinner atmosphere also means less greenhouse effect)

main factor which affects insolation?

latitude- higher latitudes have shorter winters and longer summers than the equator

-for example, “mid-latitude” areas like ct, that ahve strong seasonality (w/ short days + low sun in winter/long days high sun in summer) get more energy spread over a longer period of time in summer

what causes a period of deficit in insolation

in the summer, the period of deficit is larger at night bc the higher the temperatures are, the more outgoing radiation

*there is still a deficit in winter though, because of longer nights

when is the max temp and max insulation during the day and why does this difference between them exist?

max temp is usually 2-3, max insulation is noon. The difference is because of a lag in time in radiation.

How does a body of water affect temperatures (3 ways)

-in winter, reservoir of warmth, summer reservoir of cold

-provides moisture of the atmosphere- creates more humidity which makes things hotter; absorbs at night + re-radiates it towards the ground

-haze and clouds can also reduce solar radiation

3 ways surface heat can be transferred from one place to another

(1) conduction (direct transfer from one surface to another)

(2) convection (heat transferred by fluid mixing)

(3) latent heat transfer (heat transferred by evaporation or condensation of water)

wind chill

makes someone feel colder bc the wind encourages additional evaporation from the skin which removes heat

changes in pressure

indicate changing weather as different air masses move through- read using a barometer

four factors which affect wind chill

gravity

pressure gradient force

coriolis force

friciton

what creates a pressure gradient?

differences in pressure - air flows from high pressure to low pressure, and is driven by this pressure gradient fore

what is the main thing that drives wind?

pressure gradient force

coriolis force

bends the path of moving air due to the rotation of earth underneath it.

moving air bends right in northern hemisphere, left in southern

-strength is dependent on latitude (the further you move from the equator, the further the wind will bend)

friction in wind

wind slows down near surface bc of roughness of surface- obstacles slow down Coriolis effect

how are winds marked?

by the direction they are coming FROM

graphical representation of pressure gradients

create models w/ isobar lines indicate the level of pressure gradient -

-closer together isobars represent stronger pressure gradient, and therefore stronger winds

-pressure gradient force is perpendicular to isobars

generally speaking, what are the regional characteristics of pressure in America?

low winds out west, higher in northeast

characteristics of low pressure systems

-called convergent regions bc air converges from surrounding high pressure

-warm air rises bc its less dense, which leaves behind low pressure

-cold air can’t hold as much moisture- so low pressure typically brings cloudy + rainy conditions

characteristics of high-pressure systems

-called divergent regions bc air diverges from high to low pressure

-cool dry air in the troposphere descends to surface bc it’s dense which causes high pressure at surface

-conditions tend to be warmer and sunnier

what do points along a single isobar have in common on isobaric maps?

they all have the same surface pressure

in the winter, what types of temperatures are high and low pressure systems associated with?

high pressure usually associated w/ very cold temps and clear skies’ low pressure usually associated w/ warmer temps, cloudy/rainy conditions

how are sea breezes created

(1) sun shines over land, heating it up opposite for water bc its resilient to temp changes

(2) warm air from heated land rises, leaving behind low pressure, in relation to water

(3) high pressure from the water creates pressure gradient where wind flows onto land w/ lower pressure

anemometer

measures wind speed

windvane

measures wind direction

cyclonic pressure system (northern hemisphere)

coriolis effect makes wind flow in a circular motion counterclockwise around a LOW pressure point.

-ex- a hurricane will show as an intense version of this

anticyclonic pressure systems (northern hemisphere)

in high pressure system, wind is bent to the right, or clockwise, bc of it being a divergent system.

how is latent heat absorbed and extracted during melting

absorbed by liquid, extracted by solid

*melting is the latent heat of fusion

how is latent heat added/extracted during freezing?

absorbed by solid, extracted by freezing

how is latent heat added/extracted during deposition

absorbed by solid, extracted from water vapor

how is latent heat added/extracted during sublimination

extracted from solid, absorbed by water vapor

how is latent heat added/extracted during evaporation

extracted from liquid, absorbed as water vapor

*evaporation is latent heat of vaporization

how is latent heat added/extracted during condensation

absorbed by liquid, extracted from water vapor

specific humidity

the absolute amount of water vapor in atmosphere (g/kg)

relative humidity

the proportion of water vapor content to the total amount of water vapor the atmosphere can hold given the temperature

dew point temperature

the temp at which relative humidity is 100% and te hair saturates with water, fromeing either dew, frost, or fog/clouds

if temp increases, what happens to relative humidity?

if the temperature increases, relative humidity decreases (and vice versa) bc the amount of water vapor stays the same

true or false- dew pt is relatively constantly for a given air mass

true

cirrus clouds

high level cloud (meaning its ice based) - feathery and sweeps in the atmosphere

cirrostratus clouds

high-level cloud (ice-based), appears as a haze or halo around the sun

altocumulus clouds

mid-level cloud- sparse, puffs of cloud

altostratus clouds

mid-level cloud that appears as a haze around the sun - typically when temps are cold

cirrocumulus clouds

high-level cloud (ice-based) - appears as poofy w/ fish scale or mackerel sky

cumulonimbus clouds

low-level cloud that appears as a very large, vertical cloud

-usually associated w/ percipitation

nimbostratus clouds

low-level cloud that produces rain (

stratus clouds

low-level clouds that cover the whole sky- might lead to rain

stratocumulus clouds

low-level clouds in between stratus and cumulus (long and somewhat fluffy, not like cumulus though)

cumulus

low-level cloud. appears as traditional cloud w/ flat bottom and wavy, puffy top

Characteristics of warm fronts

-warm air turns into cold air

-usually takes longer to develop

-rain will form and it will be long and slow

-will start as slowly warmer, and then be steady

-pressure will start falling, then level out, then fall again

-will start w/ poor visibility,

-warm air will rise over it

clouds associated w/ warm fronts

-cirro + altostratus clouds will form- will get thicker and thicker bc of high atmospheric moisture

-rain will fall from dense stratus clouds

characteristics of cold fronts

-cold air at the surface pushes into warmer air

-rain is fast and heavy

-sharp drop in temp

-be left in cooler, dryer air- dew point will drop bc of the dryer air

-drop in pressure, and then a rapid rise

-upward motion sets off line of thunderstorms

clouds associated w/ cold fronts

-warm air will shoot up more quick and release moisture as cumulonimbus clouds, creating heavy thunderstorm system that dumps water quickly

-will start with little clouds, then big cumulonimbus clouds, then back to little clouds

-good visibility

what kind of pressure systems do fronts tend to wrap themselves around?

low pressure systems

how are warm fronts represented on a map?

as half circles pointing in the direction the warm front is going

how are cold fronts represented on a map?

as little teeth going in the direction its moving

how is a mixture of cold and warm fronts represented + what is it called?

-an occluded front- represented as a mixture of both teeth and half circles

how is a stationary front represented on a map?

w/ no directionality- the points are going in opposite directions,

Types of water available and their relative frequency

-salt water- 97%

-2.8- freshwater - out of this freshwater:

-2.15 - ice sheets and glaciers

-.63- ground water

-.02 other (atmosphere, soil water, freshwater lakes, saline lakes, etc.)

where does most useable water come from?

ground water

General description of the water cycle

continually circulating between atmosphere, land surface, plants, the ocean, fresh bodies of water- closed system w/ two main subsystems:

(1) water that falls/evaporates over ocean

(2) water which moves around on continents

evaporation

changing from liquid to gaseous water vapor states- occurs over open bodies of water

need 2 conditions:

(1) enough heat energy

(2) air must be saturated

*this creates a vapor-pressure gradient

transpiration

the passage of water to the atmosphere through leaf pores (byproducts of photosynthesis)

evapotranspiration

encompasses combined evaporation + transpiration

actual evapotranspiration and potential evapotranspiation

-more plants = max rate (PE)

-insufficient soil moisture causes plants to respire at a reduced rate AE

-when AE>PE - not enough water avialablity (ex- in a desert)

-when AE=PE - indicator of good amount of water

what does precipitation depend on

temp between clouds where water is formed and the surface

snow occurs if-

ice crystals in atmosphere does not encounter an air layer aboce freezing while falling onto Earth’s surface

sleet

occurs when falling rain encounters a subsequent deep layer of air below freezing, which causes rain to freeze and arrive as ice pellets

freezing rain

occurs when precipitation drops to freezing point, but does not actually freeze until hitting a surface that is below freezing

interception

when leaves/branches intercept precipitation before it reaches the ground

Infiltration

when water at surface sinks into soil - water that infiltrates the ground

overland flow

once a surface hits its infiltration capacity and can no longer absorb water, it flows over the surface and turns into this

what are some factors which affect infiltration capacity?

(1) physical traits of the soil

(2) type/extent of vegetation cover

(3) how much moisture is already in the soil (especially in cold)

(4) how much saturation the soil has

what kind of an affect do urban areas have on overland flow?

they usually have low infiltration capacityies, which produce high quantities of overland flow-

this leads to high erosion, which fills up lakes and streams + overland flow flows down slope and enters stream as runoff

where is velocity the greatest in streams?

in the middle + at the top

-it is high in steep sections (rapids) and low in pools