Psychology Unit 1-4

components of the scientific method

-hypothesis (can be observed and measured, must be falsifiable)

-theory(generates new hypotheses and integrates numerous findings into a coherent whole, all theories are not equally plausible)

critical thinking for pyschologists

-Applying the scientific method

-examining assumption and biases, Both of others and our own

-considering alternative viewpoints

-tolerating ambiguity when evidence is inconclusive

principle of parsimony

simplest of all competing explanations of a phenomenon should we be the one to accept

empiricism

psychological tenet that knowledge comes through experience

determinism

the belief that all events are governed by lawful, cause and effect relationships

Zeitgeist

refers to a general set of beliefs of a particular culture at a specific time in history (religion)

-delayed the science of psychology

-Materialism: the belief that humans and other living beings are composed exclusively of physical matter

Hippocrates 4 humours that contribute to our health and personality

-blood

-yellow bile

-black bile

-phelgm

Aristotle

Tabula Rasa=Man begins life with a blank slate

para pysche: first text n history of pyschology

Aristotle Pysche

pysche: “the mind” is the source of all human behaviour

—-No differential between mind and soul

Ancient greeks thought the brain cools blood and plays no role in behaviour

—-Memory stored in the heart

Rene Decartes

-proposed ‘cartesian dualism’ as a solution to the mind-body problem

-both a nonmaterial mind and a material body drive behaviour.

-solution suffered from the ‘problem of interactionsim’

-tried to resolve ‘problem of interactionsm’ via the pineal gland

Gustav Fechner: Psychophysics

The study of the relationship between the physical world and the mental representation of that world

Brain Localization

certain parts of the brain control specific mental abilities

Phrenology: Franz Joseph Gall and Johann Spurzheim

-brain consisted of 27 ‘organs’, each associated with a personality trait

-size of organ corresponded to development of trait

Brain Injury: Paul Broca

identified brain region associated with speech production

Brain Injury: Carl Wernicke

identified brain region associated with speech comprehension

Franz Mesmer

-Believed magnets could redirect the flow of metallic fluids in the body to cure diseases.

-directed fluids by ‘mesmerizing’ the patient with hand movements, inducing a trance (later renamed hypnosis)

Sigmund freud: psychoanalysis

a psychological approach that attempts to explain how behaviour and personality are influenced by unconscious processes

unconscious mind guided behaviours (Sigmund Freud): Id

Instincts ()

unconscious mind guided behaviours (Sigmund Freud):Super-ego

Morality and critical thinking ()

unconscious mind guided behaviours (Sigmund Freud): Ego

organized part that mediates between the desires of the Id and Super-ego ()

Criticisms of Freud

-used subjective rather than scientific method

-dismissed claims of sexual abuse as mere constructions of our unconscious mind

-theory suggested a lack of free will

contributions of Freud

-introduced the potential for unconcious mental processes

-medical model: use of medical ideas to treat psychological disorders

-incorporated evolutionary thinking by acknowledging physiological needs and urges

-emphasized that experiences during development influence adult behaviour

Sir Francis Galton

investigated nature and nurture relationships.

believed heredity explained psychological differences

Sir Francis Galton:Eminence

combination of ability, morality, and achievement resulting from good genes

-beliefs led him to coin ‘eugenics’ and justify its use

primary contributions of Galton

-initiated debate about nature and nurture

-promoted use of statistical methods to quantify psychological traits

Wilhelm Wundt

first laboratory for psychology. used intropsection

introspection

a process of ‘looking within to describe psychological sensations

structuralism

analyzing conscious experience by breaking it down into basic elements and to understand how these elements work together

Structuralism: Edward Titchener

-adopted Wundts method of introspection even though critics was approaching

-described mental experiences as composed of ‘elements’, like a periodic table

-different combinations of elements responsible for more complex experiences

Functionalism: William James

-wrote first modern textbook in psychology, The principles of psychology

-influenced by Darwins evolutionary principles

-proposed functionalism

proposed functionalism

the study of the purpose and function of behaviour and conscious experience

Edwin Twitmyer

discovered conditioned reflexes

Ivan pavlov

-trained dogs to salivate in response to a metronome

-won Nobel prize for discovering classical conditioning

• a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired

Ivan Pavlov: Behaviourism

Study of conditioning soon became the focus of:

• Behaviourism: the study of observable behaviour, with little or no reference to mental events or instincts as possible influences on behaviour

John B. Watson

-rise of behaviourism in north america

-only observable changes in behaviour and the environment should be studied scientifically

-all behaviour could be explained by conditioning

-(ads)

B.F Skinner

-Believed in fundamental rules of learning shared among all animals

-operant conditioning

-theory left little room for free will

operant conditioning (B.F skinner)

strengthening or weakening a behaviour by reward and punishment

Humanistic Psychology

focuses on the unique aspects of each individual human, each person’s freedom to act, his or her rational thought, and the belief that humans are fundamentally different from animals

Humanistic Psychology Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow

focused on

-positive aspects of pyschology

-the meaning of experience

-self-actualization

Karl Lashley

tried to locate the ‘engram’

non-localization: exact location of damage not important

principle of mass action: size of damage corresponds with impairment

Donald Hebb: Hebbs Law

“cells that fire together, wire together’

wilder penfield

-electrically stimulated brains of patients under local anesthetic

-mapped sensory and motor cortices

The cognitive revolution: Hermann Ebbinghause

Forgetting curves

The cognitive revolution: Frederick Bartlett

memory is an interpretive process

The cognitive revolution: Gestalt Pyschology

-emphasized the need to focus on the whole of perception and experience, rather than its parts

-”the whole is greater than the sum of its parts”

cognitive psychology

modern perspective that focuses on mental processes, such as memory, thinking, and language

Kurt Lewin

Founder of modern social psychology

behaviour is a function of individual and environment

objective measurements

the measure of an entity or behaviour that, within an allowed margin of error, is consistent across instruments and observers

variable: refers to the object, concept, or event being measured.

-behavioural measures

-magnetic resonance imaging (mri)

-blood or saliva

-self-reporting

operational definitions

statements that describe the procedures (or operations) and/or specific measures that are used to record observations

reliability

when a measure provides consistent and stable answers across multiple observations and points in time

validity

the degree to which an instrument or procedure actually measures what it claims to measure

Generalizability

refers to the degree to which one set of results can be applied to other situations, individuals, or events

-study large groups

• sample to population

  -Critical evaluation of findings

Generalizability of Results-Sample type: Random sample

every individual of a population has an equal chance of being included

Generalizability of Results-Sample type: Convenience sample

samples of individuals who are the most readily available

Generalizability of Results-Location of study

laboratory vs naturalistic research

ecological validity: the degree to which the results of a laboratory study can be applied to or repeated in the natural environment

Hawthorne effect

a term used to describe situations in which behaviour changes as a result of being observed

Demand Characteristics

inadvertent cues given off by the experimenter or the experimental context that provide information about how participants are expected to behave

• clever Hans effect

Social desirability responding

research participants respond in ways that increase the chances they will be viewed favourably

• can minimize through assurances of anonymous/confidential questioning

observer expectancy effect

Researcher’s expectations can influence subject’s behaviour

• Teacher ‘favouritism’

Placebo effect

a measurable and experienced improvement in health or behaviour that cannot be attributable to a medication or treatment

Techniques that reduce bias

-anonymity

-confidentiality

-inform participants

-single-blind study

-double-blind study

single-blind study

the participants do not know the true purpose of the study, or else do not which type of treatment they are receiving (placebo or treatment drug)

Double-blind study

a study in which neither the participant nor the experimenter knows the exact treatment for any individual

replication

the process of repeating a study and finding a similar outcome each time

weak forms of evidence: anecdotal evidence

an individuals story or testimony about an observation or event that was used to make a claim as evidence

weak forms of evidence: Appeal to authority

the belief in an ‘experts’ claim even when no supporting data or scientific evidence is present

• Biased expert?

weak forms of evidence: selective use of data

statistics are often inappropriately used to bolster weak arguments

descriptive data

from observations, no attempt to explain the ‘why’

generated from:

• case studies

• naturalistic observation

• surveys and questionnaires

case studies

are in depth reports about the details of a specific case

-difficult to generalize findings

naturalistic observation

when psychologists unobtrusively observe and record behaviour as it occurs in the subjects natural environments

correlational research

involves measuring the degree of association between two variables. have: positive vs negative

magnitude correlation coefficient -1 to +1

illusory correlations

relationships that really exist only in the mind rather than in reality.

• gamblers on a ‘hot streak’

• stereotypes

experimental research: Experimental group

receives special treatment in regard to the IV

experimental research: Control group

similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment

experimental research: random assignment

a technique for dividing samples into two or more groups

experimental research: experimenter control

variables are manipulated

experimental research: Independent variable

presumed cause

experimental research: dependent variable

presumed effect

experimental research: confounding variables

variables outside of the researchers control that might affect the results

experimental research: Between-subjects design

participants who are in different groups are compared

• A large sample and random assignment make equal groups likely, but not guaranteed

experimental research: Within-subjects design

All participants respond to all types of stimuli or experience all experimental conditions

-order effects

• separating measurements

• counterbalancing

Quasi-Experimental research

a research technique in which two or more groups that are compared are selected based on predetermined characteristics, rather than random assignment

• e.g comparing men and woman

• cannot determine cause-and-effect

informed consent

a potential volunteer must be informed of the purpose, tasks, and risks involved in the study, and give consent to participate based on the information provided

• topic

• nature of stimuli

• nature of tasks

• duration

• risks

• steps taken to minimize risks

deception

misleading or only partially informing participants of the true topic or hypothesis under investigation

debriefing

the researchers should explain the true nature of the study, and especially the nature of and reason for the deception

Animals are used in psychological studies when

• treatments cannot be applied to humans

• heritability studies require species with short lifespans

• examining evolutionary organs of behaviour and cognition

descriptive statistics

are a set of techniques used to organize, summarize, and interpret data

• frequency

• central tendency

• variability

frequency

the number of observations that fall within a certain category or range of scores

central tendency

a measure of the central point of a distribution (mean, median, mode)

hypothesis test

a statistical method of evaluating whether differences among groups are meaningful, or could have been arrived at by chance alone

statistical significance

implies that the mean of the groups are farther apart than you would expect them to be by chance alone

Behavioural genetics

evaluating how genes and environment influence behaviour by studying people of varying relatedness

1. Twin studies

   monzygotic vs dizygotic twins

concordance rates

degree of similarity between pairs of individuals

heritability

heritability ranges from 0 to 1. Measures degree to which genetics explains individual differences or variance in a behaviour

behavioural genomics

the study of DNA and the ways in which specific genes are related to behaviour

• how traits are inherited

neural plasticity

the brain’s ability to change structure and function

adult neurogenesis

formation of new neurone that are integrated into the adult brain

-dendritic branching and formation dendritic spines

Glial Cells

a variety of cell types that serve support functions for neurone

multiple sclerosis

result of malfunctioning of glial cells

• microglia mount immune response against myelin sheath

• loss of saltatory conduction