APWH Unit 4

95 Theses

Martin Luther, after putting *his idea for reformation on the church door* called the \________ \________, was called a *heretic* by the Pope and was *taken away* he was able to *write many things in hiding and share them with others*.

against

The *Mughals and other South Asian rulers successfully played the merchants of Britain, France, Portugal, and the Netherlands \______ one another* to *prevent* any one group from becoming *too influential*.

Age of Discovery

European historians typically described the period from the fifteenth through the seventeenth centuries as the "\_______ \____ \_____" ("Age of Exploration"), *reflecting the fact that Europeans encountered all the world's major continents directly for the first time, accurately mapping their approximate borders*.

Alhambra Decree

the *Spanish monarchs issued this decree in 1492, expelling the Jews from the last Western European states* in which they had been allowed to live.

Ana Nzinga

the *powerful queen of Ndongo and Matamba that resisted Portuguese attempts to subjugate her people for forty years*; both a mastermind strategist in war and a charismatic diplomat, eventually *taking advantage of Portugal's rebellion against Spain in the mid-seventeenth century to negotiate an end to armed hostilities*.

Anabaptists

a branch of Protestantism that *completely rejected all the Catholic church hierarchy and old laws*; they *refused to recognize the baptism* and say people must be re-baptized; *anarchist* and never had a real state.

Anglican Christianity

the *Church of England* that was most similar to the Catholic Church, *retaining the church hierarchy but replacing the Pope with the King of England*; founded by *Henry who declared himself head of the church just so he could divorce his wife and get rid of the Pope*; *lacked a consistent theology* and its followers spent much of the Early Modern Period *infighting* with one another over how their church should be.

Ashanti Empire

a *West African kingdom which profited from engaging in the slave trade with Europeans*; a loose confederation of *small kingdoms which answered to a single ruler*.

Atlantic Trading System

*larger trade system which linked together the economies of European metropoles, African trading partners, and Latin + North American colonies*.

Atlantic World

The *mixing of Native American, European, and West African traditions created a cultural synthesis* termed the \_________ \________ by historians.

banned

With regards to culture, the French \______ *French Protestants- the Huguenots*- from settling in their *Canada colony*.

Bartolomeu Dias

went on a *voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in Southern Africa that proved that the Indian Ocean was connected* with the Atlantic Ocean.

Battle of Tondibi

*battle at the end of the sixteenth century in which the Moroccans invaded Songhai unexpectedly and used elite forces wielding gunpowder weapons* to devastate the inferiorly equipped Songhai forces.

Bicameralism

practice in which the *British Parliament further divided into two chambers* ("houses") which *both had to agree in order to make important decisions*.

British

When the later *Mughals' central authority began to collapse during the Maratha Wars*, the \_____ East India Company stepped in to fill the *power vacuum*.

British East India Company

Some Monopoly Companies, like the \_______ \______ \______ \________, ultimately *came to control more wealth than their entire home country*.

Calvinist Christianity (Reformed Church)

*Christian sect founded by John Calvin in Switzerland*; believed in *predestination*; was the *least similar to Catholic Christianity* of the major branches of Protestantism because it entirely *rejected the traditional church hierarchy* in favor of decentralized, local leadership; became the *state religion in the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Scotland* and attracted large religious *minorities in France and Eastern Europe*.

cannons, exempt

In South Asia, the *Portuguese initially attempted to purchase goods, like spices, as merchants*. When the *land-based state authorities required them to pay trade duties*, however, the *Portuguese refused and bombarded their cities* with \______ until the rulers agreed to \______ them from the tariffs.

Caravel

a *new type of ship* that made initial transoceanic travel along uncharted routes possible thanks to its *light weight, maneuverability, and Lateen sails*.

Carracks

*large ships that enabled transoceanic trade* along previously charted routes by *sacrificing speed and maneuverability for stability, cargo capacity, and military defensibility*.

Cash Crops

*agricultural products grown in bulk for the sole purpose of exporting them for profit.*
ex. *coffee* (transplanted from its origins in Arabia to grow productively in the Caribbean) and *sugarcane* (farmed intensely for production into molasses or rum and export back to Europe).

Catholic Reformation

*reformation of the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant reformation in which it took steps to further centralize the Pope's control* over the Church and to combat Protestantism.

Central Banks

created in response to increasing costs to run their governments, these *banks served as repositories for the government's funds but also mobilized those funds to invest in the economy through loans to other banks*.

Ceuta

During the late Post Classical period, the *Kingdom of Portugal had led tentative expeditions across the sea to Muslim North Africa* as part of the *later crusading movement*, seizing the *Moroccan* city of \______.

Chattel Slavery

*crux of the whole trade system in which human beings enslaved other human beings, treating them as trade goods to be bought and sold*, and forcing them to farm cash crops.

Christendom

contemporaries often spoke of *Europe in 1450* using this title; *"the lands of the Christians."*

Christopher Columbus

The Spanish favored the *westward option (across the Atlantic) for a trade route*, sponsoring the voyages of \_________ \_________, who *accidentally discovered a water route to the Caribbean islands*.

coastal

Partially because of their *relative disinterest in the region's trade goods (other than slaves)*, Europeans restricted their African colonies to the \______ *settlements required for maintaining a supply line for ships traveling to Asia*.

colonies

In *contrast to the land-based empires of Asia* the *medium-scale states of Western Europe founded sea-based empires in which overseas \_______ funneled wealth* into them because they failed to establish control over the *lucrative Eurasian trade routes* in the Post-Classical Period.

Columbian Exchange

*plants, animals, and diseases traveled between the two halves of the globe*, impacting both regions; *Afro-Eurasia was primarily impacted in positive ways whereas the Americas were, all things considered, severely harmed*.

compass, astrolabe, charts

Post-Classical inventions from the *Middle East and East Asia*, including the \_______, \_______, and astronomical \_______ enabled *increasingly accurate navigation*.

Confederation

a *type of state in which numerous dependent states come together to create a government to handle mutual foreign policy while retaining large autonomy for themselves in domestic matters*.

Conquistadors

*Spanish adventurers* such as Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro *who helped the Spanish conquer these indigenous American empires and force them to become Spanish territories*.

consolidated

Aside from the Holy Roman Empire, all of the *major polities of Western Europe centralized during the Early Modern Period* moved *away from feudalism* towards \_______ structures of power.

defied

The fleets of Portugal \_______ *every attempt of the Gunpowder Empires to oppose them in the Indian Ocean and could batter land-based fortifications* with cannon fire from a distance.

Disease Vectors

*organisms from the Old World (mosquitoes and rats) which could spread dangerous infectious diseases* between humans.

Divine Right of Kings

*doctrine that stated that the French monarchs claimed that they represented the Christian God on Earth*, who had given them the sole and absolute right to rule over their kingdom.

Dutch East India Company

rather than *investing the Republic's resources in founding a state-run overseas colony*, the Netherlands charted this monopoly company *run by private citizens but granted semi-governmental powers like waging war, enforcing laws, coining money, and engaging in diplomacy with Southeast Asian rulers*.

Eighty Years' War

war in which, because the Dutch were originally possessions of the Spanish Crown, *Spain funneled the immense wealth of their overseas empire into futile attempts to force the Dutch to accept Spanish rule*.

Encomienda System

*system in which Spain granted parcels of land to Spanish colonists, giving them the right to the forced-labor of its native inhabitants*; failed long term.

English Civil War

through a *series of armed struggles between Parliament and the king, Parliament further reduced the power of the monarch*, establishing that the king ruled only by Parliament's consent.

equal

The *medium-scale states of Europe each lacked the ability to conquer one another due to their relatively \_____ strength* (among other historical circumstances), so they expanded overseas.

European Nobility

*class in Europe that defined its identity on the basis of heredity supported by opulent displays of wealth* through the construction of countryside estates and ostentatious consumption of foreign trade goods.

European, Native American, African

Through *conquest, the ravages of disease, and the forced migration of peoples across the Atlantic*, the *population of the Americas radically changed*, becoming a *diverse mix* of people of \_____ descent, \_______ \_______ descent, and \_____ descent (or some combination thereof).

Factories

*small, fortified trading posts* along the coast of South Asia.

Fluyts

*lighter, faster trading ships used by the Dutch that allowed less powerful states to navigate around trade barriers* set up by their more powerful competitors; *sacrificed military defensibility in exchange for their speed and cargo capacity, thus constituting ideal trade ships*.

force

Because their goals were *primarily economic*, the Dutch did little to \______ *European religious or cultural traditions on the inhabitants of maritime Southeast Asia* that they conquered during the Early Modern period.

Fronde

a *rebellion by French nobles against the monarch's authority*; the monarchy successfully exerted its power and control by *crushing the dissent*.

Global Silver Flow

saw *silver mined in the Spanish colonies of the Americas transported to the Eastern Hemisphere*, with *most silver ultimately ending up in Imperial China*.

Goa

*Portugal cooperated with the inland Vijayanagar Empire to seize control* of \_____ from the *rival Bijapur Sultanate*.

Government in France

- maintained a *hereditary monarchy, but moved steadily towards Absolute Monarchy*, a system in which the monarch possessed all political power without any rival authority within the state.

Government in Portugal

- largely followed the same patterns as Spain, having a *hereditary monarchy with power centralized on the royal court*.
- for much of the Early Modern Period, *Spain and Portugal entered into a personal union*, sharing the same monarch.

Government in Spain

- maintained a *hereditary monarchy with power centralized on the royal court*, constructing a new central capital at *Madrid* to be the center of governance.
- the far-flung territories of Spain, however, required a *decentralized system of governance in which appointed governors enjoyed substantial autonomy* from the Spanish monarch.

Government of Great Britain

- took a path towards *Limited Monarchy*, a government in which institutions and organizations within the state limit the power of the monarch.

Government of the Dutch Republic

- adopted a *republic*, in which they had no official monarch but instead looked to a body called the *States General* for leadership.

Great Divergence

term historians use to name the *shift by which European powers began to outpace their rivals*, a development only further bolstered by the resulting economic revolutions of the Modern period.

Great Power

a state that has *become strong enough economically and militarily to throw their weight and influence around in numerous regions of the world*.

Great Power Conflict

*conflict between two powerful states trying to throw their influence around* in the same regions.

Gujarati Indian Merchants

*South Asian merchants who brokered the exchange of cotton and spices* for goods from overseas.

Haciendas

*Latin American plantations that became the backbone of the region's economy*.

Henry the Navigator

The *Portuguese favored the eastward option (under Africa) for a trade route* and their *prince*, \_________ \____ \_______, provided them with ample support.

House of Commons

*Bicameralism allowed separate interest groups to have their voices heard in the political process*, in Britain's case the nobility in the *House of Lords and the "commoners"* in the \________ \__ \_______.

House of Orange

Because this *stadtholder always came from a single noble family*, the \______ \___ \______, the Dutch "Republic" had real *resemblance to a limited monarchy*.

Household Slavery

In contrast to earlier systems, like \________ \______ or military slavery, in which *enslaved people might at least enjoy a basic quality of life and even attain to socio-political influence*, Chattel Slavery *treated human beings like animals*.

Huguenots

Though *France retained Catholicism* as its state religion, it struggled with religious unity due to large numbers of *French Calvinists* called \________, who *increasingly had to flee to overseas colonies to escape persecution*.

Indian Cotton Cloth Industry

Through the Portuguese trading posts, later joined by British, Dutch, and French settlements, *South Asia formed a lucrative trading relationship with Europe* in the \______ \______ \______ \______, which *provided jobs for peasant labor growing cotton and for artisan-crafters who produced cotton textiles*.

indulgences

the Reformation began when a *German monk named Martin Luther* publicly *criticized the Catholic Church's practices*, most notably the collection of \_______, *certificates sold by the Church promising to forgive Christians' time spent in purgatory* (a place of punishment after death).

Javanese Merchants

*Southeast Asian merchants from the island of Java who converted to Islam and carried rare spices from Maritime Southeast Asia to South Asia* and beyond.

Jesuit Order

a *new missionary order of highly educated priests who attempt to convert non-Catholics to Catholicism both in Europe and around the wider world*; founded during the Catholic Reformation.

Joint-stock Companies

*business institutions in which multiple merchants pooled money into the company's trading activities, sharing in a "stock" of the profits (or losses).*
- *"stock-holders"* could not lose more than they put into the company, making merchants more willing to contribute funds.
- merchants and other wealthy people realized they could sell their "stock" in the company to other merchants, making money off of its *increase in value*.

Kingdom of Kongo

In Central Africa, the *Portuguese built closer ties with the local rulers than in West Africa*; its missionaries successfully converted the king of the \________ \____ \_______ to *Catholic Christianity*.

Lateen Sails

sails which the Caravel could use to *sail against the wind through a procedure called tacking*.

Latin American Catholicism

culturally, following its *conquest by the Spanish and the Portuguese*, *Latin America adopted this as the official majority religion*; created a close partnership between church and state.

Lutheran Church

*church founded by Martin Luther that maintained a reduced church hierarchy*, with the *king or prince at its head*; had a *clear theology, believing in salvation by faith alone* (sola fide) and in the *sole authority of the Bible* (sola scriptura); adopted by the *Scandinavian countries of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway*, along with many of the German princes of the *Holy Roman Empire*.

Macau

Whether the Chinese fell for the Portuguese claiming they were a new people or the Portuguese bribed their officials, the *Ming dynasty ceded control of the peninsula of \______ to Portugal as a trading post on the condition that they refrain from fortifying it*.

Machiavelli

*political thinker who proposed an understanding of government based not on personal bonds between lord and vassal or on religious legitimacy, but rather on pragmatic concerns*, such as the ruler's obligation to increase their power to protect their borders and keep order in their territory.

Manorialism, Urban

Already by the end of the Post-Classical Period, the *agricultural-based economy* of \_______ was supplemented by an \_____ *economy centered on the production of trade goods and their export* abroad.

Maritime Rivalries

the Sea-based Empires developed *long-term patterns of hostility towards one another over control of overseas territories*.

Maroon Societies

groups of *mixed West African and Native American descent existing beyond the reach of colonial governments' authority*; created by people of West African descent who escaped from slavery and by Native Americans; in the *Caribbean and Brazil*.

Mercantile

Though Europe had remained vastly *behind the Middle East and Southeast Asia* in terms of \_______ reach and inferior to South Asia and East Asia in its *production of finished trade* goods, *Europe did not lack a functioning economy*.

Mercantilism

the fundamental understanding of economics in the Early Modern Period; an *economic doctrine which states that the basis of wealth is in gold and silver*; *export more goods than you import to have a strong economy*.

Metacom's War

when the *British Puritan colonists in the northeast violated their treaty agreements with the Wampanoag people group, the Wampanoag and their allies invaded the colony, resulting in a war* in which the Wampanoags and their allies burned a dozen towns and inflicted severe damage before the *Puritans and their native allies eventually achieved victory*.

Metropole

*center of an empire that extracts wealth from territories* (capital).

Middle Passage

*human beings sold into slavery from West Africa were packed like sardines into dark, unsanitary ships by slave traders*, who took them across the Atlantic.

military, trickery

In contrast, the *British desired to settle and farm the land, and instead tended to use \_____ force* or \______ to *force tribal rulers to cede ownership* of territory to British colonists.

Moluccas

home to many small-scale Muslim states, these *islands produced some of the world's rarest and most valuable spices, including cloves and nutmeg*; the *Portuguese initially founded their empire of trading posts in order to establish and dominate a sea-based trade route for these spices*.

Monopoly Companies

*companies given the sole right to trade in a particular trade good or region by the government*; through them, the state sponsored beneficial economic growth at little cost to itself, *mobilizing private resources in service to the state*.

Moveable-type Printing Press

*new European way to print books and sell them relatively cheaply*; vastly increased the ease of producing books, papers, and pamphlets.

Muslim-European Indian Ocean Rivalry

The *Europeans faced real challenges from the Gunpowder Empires*, who *resisted the encroachment of the Portuguese* in the \_______-\________ \______ \______ \______.

naval

Early Modern Europeans also *possessed technological advantages over the empires of Asia*, but strictly in \______ *technology on the high seas*.

naval, military, manpower, immunity

In *sub-Saharan Africa* (West, Central, Southern, Eastern), the *Europeans had superiority* in both \_____ and \_____ technology. Nevertheless, they lacked the \_______ of the states of sub-Saharan Africa as well as the \_______ to the *tropical diseases of West and Central Africa*.

New World Crops

*crops from the New World, like maize and potatoes, that increased diversity in the diet* of Old World humans and provided hardy crops which could *withstand environmental conditions that typically challenged Old World Crops* like wheat and barley.

North American Protestantism

a *diverse tradition of Protestant Christians inhabiting British North America because the British encouraged Protestants to migrate to the Americas*.

Northwest Passage

*European exploration of North America initially came about through a desire* to find a \_______ \_______, a *waterway between the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans*.

Old World Animals

*animals from the Old World, particularly horses, pigs, and cattle transformed both economy and society amongst native peoples in the Americas*; horses promoted a nomadic lifestyle.

Old World Crops

*crops from the Old World, particularly wheat, barley, okra (brought by enslaved Africans), rice (brought by enslaved Africans), and cotton took well to conditions* in the Americas.

Omani Arab Merchants

*Middle Eastern merchants of Oman on the Arabian Peninsula who took advantage of their location between the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf to exchange goods from East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia for Middle Eastern goods* like gemstones, incense, and coffee.

Parliamentary Monarchy

Great Britain's type of monarchy in which the *monarch held executive power but had to follow the laws passed by a representative body called Parliament* made up of both *hereditary nobles and elected ministers*.

Peace of Augsburg

*European agreement that established the maxim that a prince's personal religion should be the state religion of their territory*; held off all religious wars for half a century.

Peace of Westphalia

*reluctant agreement between Catholics and Protestants*, exhausted from interminable war, that recognized independent Catholic and Protestant states in Europe and *encouraged governments to cease meddling in the internal affairs of their rivals*.