AP BIO: Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules

macromolecule

There are Four major types of biological macromolecules that make up the human body: nucleic acids (DNA & RNA), Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats

polymer

a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds

monomer

the subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer

enzyme

a macromolecule serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction. Most are proteins.

dehydration reaction

a chemical reaction in which 2 molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule

hydrolysis

a chemical reaction that breaks bonds between 2 molecules by the addition of water; functions in disassembly of polymers to monomers

carbohydrates

a sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharide) or polymers (polysaccharide)

monosaccharide

the simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also known as simple sugars, that are generally some multiple of CH2O

disaccharide

a double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage formed by a dehydration reaction

glycosidic linkage

a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction

polysaccharide

Polymers of simple sugars covalently linked by glycosidic bonds

starch

a storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by alpha glycosidic linkages

glycogen

an extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch

cellulose

a structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by beta glycosidic linkages

chitin

a structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthopods

lipid

Hydrophobic. Considered monomers. Any of a group of large biological molecules, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that mix poorly, if at all, with water. Provide an efficient form of energy storage.

fat

a lipid consisting of 3 fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a triacylglycerol or a triglyceride.

fatty acid

a carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain; vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds; 3 fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form a fat molecule, also known as a triacyglycerol or a triglyceride

triacylglycerol

a lipid consisting of 3 fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a fat or triglyceride

saturated fatty acid

a fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that are attached to the carbon skeleton

unsaturated fatty acid

a fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton

trans fat

an unsaturated fat, formed artificially during hydrogenation of oils, containing one or more trans double bonds

phospholipid

a lipid made up of glycerol joined to 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group. The hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids act as nonpolar, hydrophobic tails, while the rest of the molecule acts as a polar, hydrophilic head.; form bilayers that function as biological membranes

steroids

a type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of 4 fused rings with various chemical groups attached

cholesterol

a steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids, such as many hormones

catalyst

a chemical agent that selectively increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.

Polypeptide

A chain of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds or dehydration reactions

protein

a biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific 3D structure

amino acid

An organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl and an amino group; serve as monomers of polypeptides

peptide bond

the covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by dehydration reaction

primary structure

the level of protein structure referring to the specific linear sequence of amino acids

secondary structure

regions of repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bonding between constituents of the backbone (not the side chains).

alpha helix

a coiled region constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific pattern of hydrogen bonding between the atoms of the polypeptide backbone (not the side chains)

beta pleated sheet

one of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain fold back and forth. 2 regions of the chain lie parallel to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone (not the side chains).

tertiary structure

The overall shape of a protein molecule due to interactions of amino acid side chains, including hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges

hydrophobic interaction

a type of weak chemical interaction caused when molecules that do not mix with water coalesce to exclude water

disulfide bridge

a strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer

quaternary structure

the particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic 3D arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide

sickle-cell disease

a recessively inherited human blood disorder in which a single nucleotide change in the beta globin gene causes hemoglobin to aggregate, changing red blood cell shape and causing multiple symptoms in afflicted individuals

denaturation

in proteins, a process in which a protein loses its native shape due to the disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions, thereby becoming Biologically inactive; in DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix. Occurs under extreme (noncellular) conditions of pH, salt concentration or temperature

chaperonin

a protein complex that assists in the proper folding of other proteins

gene

a discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses)

nucleic acid

a polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. the 2 types of nucleic acid are DNA and RNA

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

a double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule, consisting of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T); capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

a type of nucleic acid consisting of a polynucleotide made up of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis, gene regulation, and as the genome of some viruses

polynucelotide

a polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers in a chain. The nucelotides can be those of DNA or RNA.

nucleotide

the building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a 5 carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and one or more phosphate groups

pyrimidine

1 of 2 types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a 6-membered ring. Cytosine (C), thymine (T) and uracil (U) are examples of these.

purines

1 of 2 types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a 6-membered ring fused with a 5-membered ring. Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are examples of these.

deoxyribose

the sugar component of DNA nucleotides, having 1 of fewer hydroxyl group than ribose, the sugar component of the RNA nucleotide

ribose

the sugar component of RNA nucleotides

double helix

the form of native DNA, referring to its 2 adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape

antiparallel

referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phophate backbones in a DNA double helix (they run in opposite 5' -\> 3' directions)

Saturated fat

All carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds

Unsaturated fat

A fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon tail.

What are 6 functions of Proteins?

Structural support \n Storage \n Transport \n Cellular Communications \n Movement \n Defense against substaces

Primary Protein Structure

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Primary structure - the sequence of amino acids in a protein \n Primary structure is determined by inherited genetic information

Ester bond

formed by the reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol, resulting in the removal of a molecule of water (H2O) and the formation of a new compound called an ester.

Phosphodiester bond

...formed by the reaction between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the hydroxyl group (-OH) of another nucleotide. The result is a linkage between the two nucleotides, creating a long chain of nucleotides that make up the genetic material in living organisms

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work

What are the three types of Polymers?

C - P - N

Carbohydrates \n Proteins \n Nucleic Acids

In which two ways do we classify monosaccharides?

The location of the carbonyl group \n The number of carbons in the carbon skeleton

Give two examples of 3 Carbon Sugars

Aldose and Ketose

What is the simplest form of starch?

Amylose

What are the three main types of Lipids?

Triglycerides \n Phospholipids \n Steroids

Enzymes

Proteins that act as a catalyst to speed up chemical reactions

What are the Four Levels of Protein Structure?

Primary \n Secondary \n Tertiary \n Quaternary

What determines Tertiary Structure?

Interactions between R Groups rather than interactions between backbone constituents

What are the R groups that determine Tertiary Structure?

Hydrogen Bonds \n Ionic Bonds \n Hydrophobic Interactions \n van der Waals interactions

What is Collagen?

A fibrous protein consisting of three polypeptide coiled like a rope

What determines the quaternary structure of a protein?

When two or more poplypeptide chains form one macromolecule

How many essential amino acids are there and what are they used for?

There are 20 essential amino acids used to form a protein.

What area the FOUR categories of organic molecules that make up all living things

Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA) \n Carbohydrates \n Lipids or Fats hyc \n Proteins

Monosaccharide

The simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also known as simple sugars, the molecular formulas of monosaccharides are generally some multiple of CH2O.

dissaccharide

A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis.

polysaccharide (Cellulose)

A structural polysaccharide of cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by β-1, 4-glycosidic linkages. A major component of pant cell walls

polysaccharide (starch)

polysaccharide (glycogen)

An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.

Which monosaccharide is the energy storing molecule produced by photosynthesis. Two of these molecules combine to make glucose

Glyceraldehyde

Which monosaccharide is a major nutrient, central to cellular metobolism. It is broken down for energy in the process of cellular respiration. The carbon skeleton of this sugar can also be used to build many other organic molecules, including amino acids and fatty acids.

Glucose

Which monosaccharide combines with glucose to form lactose, the disaccharide in milk

Galactose

Which monosaccharide is sometimes called fruit sugar\-- the one that makes apples and berries sweet. This monosaccharide is also used to make the disaccharide sucrose, or table sugar.

Fructose

Which monosaccharide is an important component of RNA and ATP. A modified form is used in building DNA.

Ribose

List the 4 categories of organic macromolecules that make up all living things and the

main functions of each

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Explain how organic macromolecules are polymers made up of monomer subunits.

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Describe the hydrolysis process of breaking down organic macromolecules to monomer subunits.

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Relating to carbohydrates, distinguish between and give examples of monosaccharides, disaccharides,

and polysaccharides.

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Relating to carbohydrates, Know which types of organism make the following polysachharides as well as the function of each: Cellulose, glycogen, chitin, starch

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Relating to carbohydrates, state the monomer subunits that make up carbohydrates.

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Relating to carbohydrates, State the name given to the bond between monosaccharides.

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Relating to lipids, Describe a major difference between carbohydrates and lipids

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Relating to lipids, Give examples of lipids and the function of eachTriglycerides (fats/oils), phospholipids, steroids, waxes

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Relating to lipids, State the subunits that make up fats.

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Relating to lipids, Describe a triglyceride molecule and state the name given to the bond between

glycerol and a fatty acid

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Relating to lipids, distinguish between the structure of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, and between monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids.

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Relating to nucleic acids, state the 2 kinds of nucleic acids

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Relating to nucleic acids, state the monomer subunits that make up nucleic acids

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