Unit 2 Ap Psychology

terms needed to know for the unit 2 test

biological psychologists

the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.

dendrites

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

axon

the neuron extension that passes and electrical messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

all-or-nothing response

a neuron's reaction of either firing or not firing.

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Agonist

A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonists

Chemical substances that block or reduce a cell's response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters.

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

motor (efferant) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles (skeletal nervous system)

Autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. It's sympathetic system arouses and parasympathetic calms.

Sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. (If you get scared)

Parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy (Your PARents come home and calm you down)

Endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress

Pituitary gland

"THE MASTER GLAND" the endocrine system's most influential gland
under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Lesion

tissue destruction. It can occur naturally or experimentally by the caused distruction/remove of brain tissues

Pons

Connects the brainstem to the cerebellum and helps with movement coordination as well as the swallowing and coughing reflexes. Part of the Old Brain

Thalamus

Sits on top of the brainstem. Receives all sensory input EXCEPT smell and sends the information to the appropriate areas of the brain. Part of the Old Brain.

Cerebellum

"little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions including processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory, learns new movements and adjusts to changes. Part of the Old Brain

Limbic system

A system of neural structures at the border of brainstem. Associated with emotions like fear, agression, and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the Hippocampus, Amygdala and hypothalamus.

Amygdala

2 Lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system, linked to emotion. Includes rage and fear.

Hippocampus

Plays an important role in learning and memory formation, ESPECIALLY long-term memories. Linked to processing spatial navigation. Part of the Limbic system.

hypothalamous

A neural structure lying below the thalamus, it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. Support, nourish, and protect our neurons; help with learning and thinking.

identical twins (monozygotic)

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal twins (dizygotic)

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs; no genetically closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes; this may vary depending on population range and the environment being studied

epigenetics

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.

Heredity

How much of the variation that exists between a group of individuals is due to genetis (NOT the ammont or precent of a given trait that is inherited).

Pineal Gland

Produces melationin and helps regulate sleep

Hypothalamus

Maintains homeostasis and controls reward system. Controls the “drives” AKA the “4 F’s” (Fighting, Fleeing, Feeding, Mating). Helps regulate a wide range of bodily functions: body temperature, thirst, hunger, and fatigue. Part of the Limbic System.

Thyroid

Controls metabolism, located in your neck

Parathyroid

Controls blood calcium regulation, located in your neck

Pancreas

Regulates the level of blood sugar by releasing Insulin (also helps with digestion), located near your stomach

Gonads

Testes for males and ovaries for females, relase sex hormones (testosterone and estragen, respectively to premote growth)

Cell Body

The support center of the neuron

Axon Terminal Branches

Pass on chemical messages to other cells and parts of the body

Excitatory

Makes a neuron more likely to reach action potentail (excites action)

Inhibatory

Makes a neuron less liekly ro reach action potentail neurotransmitters leave the terminal branches on route to another nerves dendrites (inhibits action)

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Enables muscle action, learning and memory

Example of malfunction: ACh

Alzheimer's disease causes ____ producing neurons to deteriorate

Dopamine

Influences movement, learning, attention and emotion

Example of malfunction: Dopamine

Oversupply: Schizophrenia
Undersupply: Depresion

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal

Example of malfunction: Serotonin

Undersupply: depression, anitdipresent drugs rise ____

Norepinephrine

Helps control alertness and arousal

Example of malfunction: Norepinephrine

Undersupply can depress mood

GABA

A major inhibility neurotransmitter

Example of malfunction: GABA

Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

depolarization

movement of a cell's membrane potential to a more positive value (i.e. movement closer to zero from resting membrane potential). When a neuron is more likely to fire an action potential

Repolarization

the change in membrane potential that returns it to a negative value just after the depolarization phase of an action potential.

Receptor Sites

Protein’s typically found on the surface of cells, which are able to recognize and bond to specific messenger molecules. They also allow foe the brain to communicate.

The Brain Stem

Responsible for controlling basic bodily functions. Part of the Old Brain

Medulla Oblongata

Lower brainstem. Responsible for regulating vital functions: heart rate, blood pressure and breathing. Part of the Old Brain

Amygalda

Processes emotions, particular aggression and fear sometimes called the “fear center.” Formation of emotionally-charged memories, has a direct connection to the hypothalamus. Part of the Limbic System

Frontal Lobe

Deals with problem solving, decision making, planning and judgment

Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory information, receives input and touch, temperature, pain and body position

Temporal Lobe

Processes auditory information is involved in memory formation

Occipital Lobe

Sits at the back of the head processes visual information, including color, form and motion.

Corpus Callosum

The primary commissural region of the brain consisting of white matter tracts that connect the left and right cerebral hemispheres

Reticular Formation

Nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays a role in controlling arousal and consciousness. Part of the Old Brain

Wernicke’s Area

Deals with understanding language

Broca’s Area

Deals with the production of language and speaking

Motor Cortex

Controls voluntary movements

Somatosensory Cortex

Processes body touch and movement

Visual Cortex

Process visual information

Leasioning

May be used in circumstances to destroy selective parts of the brain in order to reduce a behavior OR to stimulate areas of the brain to generate a response

Electroencephalograms (EEG)

Measure and record brain waves in various states (ex: sleeping, dream) to study cognition

Positron Emission Tamography (PET)

Scan that uses radioactive glucose injected into the bloodstream to visualize changes in the brainstream to changes in the brain as it functions

Computer Tomography (CT) also called a CAT scan

Scan that uses variety of x-ray photograph to create the image of a two-dimensional slice of the brain and or head

Magnetic Reasonance Imaging (MRI)

Uses various magnetic fields and radio waves to create an image of the brain’s soft tissue

Functional MRI (fMRI)

Unique in that they show both the physical structure of the brain as well as brain function. We gain more insight into which parts of the brain are involved in specific tasks and abilites

Limintations of CT scans

Do not show functions of the brain

Limintations of PET scans

Less precies than fMRI. Also exposes patients to radiation

Limintations of EEG scans

Does not show structure or function of brain, just waves

Limintations of fMRI scans

Brain areas avtive for different reasons but unable to explain why (we can see how but still don’t know why)

Plasticity

The brain’s ability to reorganize itself after an accident OR modify itself in response to a change/experience. MAJOR damage.

Neurogenesis

If the brain sustains MINER it can adapt by forming new neurons, these new neurons HEAL the brain by growing new neurons and forming new connections.

Consciousness

Our awareness of ourselves and the environment.

Spontanecus

A form of slipping out of consciousness. Daydreaming, drowsiness, and dreaming

Physiological

A form of slipping out of consciousness. Hallucinations, orgasm, food/oxygen deprivation

Psychological

A form of slipping out of consciousness. Sensory deprivation, hypnosis medication

Mere-exposure effect

humans prefer old stimuli (what we’ve seen before) over new stimuli

Priming

People tend to respond more quickly and accurately to questions they have already seen even if they don’t remember them.