chapter 3 - infancy and toddlerhood

rooting

turning the head when the cheek is touched

babinski

the toes will fan out and curls when the sole of the foot is stroked from heel to toe

moro

a sudden noise or loss of support to the head and neck will cause infants to spread out their arms and legs then quickly contract the limbs inward

semantics

set of rules we use to obtain meaning from morphemes

syntax

set of rules of a language by which we construct sentences

cooing

a one-syllable combination of a consonant and a vowel word

babbling

intentional vocalization that lack specific meaning and comprise a consonant-vowel repeated sequence

self-awareness

the realization that you are separate from others

social deprivation

children who have not been given warm, nurturing care may show developmental delays, failure to thrive, and attachment disorders

dendrites

branching extensions which collect information from other neurons; shaped like tree roots

synaptogenesis

formation of connections between neurons

synaptic blooming

the period of neural growth

synaptic pruning

after the blooming period of neural growth

myelin

coating of fatty tissues around the axon of a neuron; helps insulate the nerve cell and speed up the transmission of impulses

cortex

the thin outer covering of the brain involved in voluntary activity and thinking; divided into two hemispheres with each hemisphere divided into four lobes

fissures

folds that separates the lobes

frontal lobe

behind the forehead, responsible for thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

parietal lobe

extends from the middle to the back of the skull, responsible for processing information about touch

occipital lobe

the very back of the skull, processes visual information

temporal lobe

between the ears, responsible for hearing and language

lateralization

the process of which different functions become localized primarily on one side of the brain

neuroplasticity

refers to the brain's ability to change, both physically and chemically, to enhance its adaptability to environmental change and compensate for injury

sudden infants death syndrome

identified when the death of a healthy infant occurs suddenly and unexpectedly, and medical and forensic investigation findings are inconclusive

sucking

suck on anything that touches the lips

grasp

fingers automatically grip anything that touches the palm of the hand

tonic neck

when lying on the back with the head to one side, infants will extend the arm and leg on that side while flexing the limbs on the opposite side (fencer pose)

stepping

legs move in stepping-like motion when feet touches a smooth surface

reflexes

involuntary movements in response to stimulation

cephalocaudal

head to tail physical development

proximodistal

midline outward physical development

cruising

walking while holding on to something

motor skills

refer to our ability to move out bodies and manipulate objects

fine motor skills

focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes and enable coordination of small actions

palmer grasp

grasping an object involves the use of fingers and palms, but no thumbs

pincer grasp

the use of thumb that comes at about nine months of age, the infant is able to grasp an object using the forefinger and thumb

gross motor skills

focus on large muscle groups that control our head, torso, arms, and legs; involve larger movements such as balancing

vision

poorly developed senses at birth

fovea

the central field of vision in the retina and allows us to see sharp detail

5 months

when color perception develops

hearing

sense is very keen at birth; the ability to () is evident as soon as the seventh month of prenatal development

circumcision

surgical removal of the foreskin of the penis

intermodality

through stimulation from more than one sensory modality

habituation procedures

measuring decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentation

increasingly been used to evaluate infants to study the development of perceptual and memory skills

breast milk

ideal diet for newborns

colostrum

first breast milk produced and is very rich in nutrients and antibodies

(infantile) maramus

refers to starvation due to a lack of calories and proteins

kwashiorkor

children who have diets deficient in protein; disease of the displaced child

schema

framework for organizing information; can be developed through the processes of assimilation and accommodation

assimilation

fitting the new information into an already existing schema

accommodation

expanding the framework of knowledge to accommodate the new situation

sensorimotor stage

the first stage of cognitive development

object permanence

understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists

stranger anxiety

a fear of unfamiliar people

infantile amnesia

the inability to recall memories from the first few years of life

deferred imitation

the imitation of actions after a time delay

language

a system of communication that uses symbols in a regular way to create meaning

phoneme

the smallest unit of sound that makes a meaningful difference in language

morpheme

string of one or more phonemes that makes up the smallest units of meaning in a language

pragmatics

how we communicate effectively and appropriately with others

contexual information

the information surrounding the language

gesturing

children communicate through gesturing before they can even speak

receptive language

understanding more than they can say

holophrastic speech

one-word expressions

language errors

the early utterances of children contain many errors, such as confusing /b/ and /d/

underextension

a child who learns that a word stands for an object may initially think that the word can be used for only that particular object

overextension

a child may think that a label applies to all objects that are similar to the original object

telegraphic speech

occurs when unnecessary words are not used

infant-directed speech

involves exaggerating the vowel and consonant sounds, using a high-pitched voice, and delivering the phrase with great facial expression

language acquisition device

the brain contains a universal grammar that underlies all human language (Chomsky)

deep structure of an idea

the idea is presented in the fundamental universal grammar that is common to all languages

surface structure of an idea

how it is expressed in any one language

broca's area

an area in front of the left hemisphere near the motor cortex that is responsible for language production

wernicke's area

an area of the brain next to the auditory cortex that is responsible for language comprehension

critical period

a time in which learning can easily occur between infancy and puberty

learning theory

language acquisition involves learning through association, reinforcement, observation, and imitation; children learn language from their linguistic environment

social pragmantics

language is a social tool for communication, connection, influence, and cooperation

temperament

the innate characteristics of the infant, including mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity; noticeable soon after birth

easy child

able to quickly adapt to routine and new situations, remains calm, is easy to soothe, and usually is in a positive mood

difficult child

reacts negatively to new situations, has trouble adapting to routine, is usually negative in mood and cries frequently

slow-to-warm child

has a low activity level, adjust slowly to new situations and is often negative in mood

goodness-to-fit

caregiver and infant's styles match and communication and interaction can flow

parenting is bidirectional

not only do parents affect their children, children also influence their parents

personality

defined as an individual's consistent pattern of feeling, thinking, and behaving; interplay between biological disposition and experience

stranger wariness

fear is often associated with the presence of a stranger

separation anxiety

the departure of significant others

basic emotions

interest, happiness, anger, fear, surprise, sadness, and disgust

self-conscious emotions

envy, pride, shame, guilt, doubt, and embarassment

social referencing

the process whereby infant seek out information from others to clarify a situation and then use that information to act

emotional self-regulation

strategies we use to control our emotional states so that we can attain goals

attachments

the close bond with a caregiver from which the infant derives a sense of security

freud's psychoanalytic theory

believed that the infant would become attached to a person or object that provided pleasure from sucking and mouthing objects

harlow's research

confirmed that babies have physical needs that allow them to feel safe and secure

contact comfort

infant's need for physical closeness and touching

bowlby's theory

developed the concept of attachment theory; defined attachment as the affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the mother

secure base

parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as the child explores the surroundings

mary ainsworth

developmental psychologist who studied the development of attachments in infant

the strange situation technique

the experiment is done to observe the reaction of the infant during the initial "reunion" with their caregiver after leaving them with a stranger

secure attachment style

usually explores freely while the caregiver is present and may engage with the stranger

ambivalent (resistant) attachment style

wary about the situation in general, particularly with the stranger, and stays close or even clings to the caregiver rather than exploring the toys

child is distressed when the caregiver leaves and is ambivalent when the caregiver returns

avoidant attachment style

will avoid or ignore the caregiver, showing little emotion when they depart or return