AP Psychology- Biological Bases of Behavior + Sleep

Biological psychology

The scientific study of the connections between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Dendrites

A neuron's bushy branchlike fibers that receive messages and conduct impulses to the body (listen)

Axon

The neuron's long fiber that passes messages through its branches to other neurons, muscles, or glands (speak)

Myelin sheath

A fatty tissue layer encasing the axons of some neurons in segments; enables faster transmission as neural impulses jump from one to the next; sausage-like

Action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon; leads to sodium-potassium pump activation, depolarization, and then channel opening

Refactory period

A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired; sodium ions pumped back out

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse; causes excitatory signals to exceed inhibitory signals leading to action potential

All-or-none response

A neuron's reaction of either firing or not firing; capacity past threshold does not impact strength of response

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Synaptic gap

The gap between the dendrites of one neuron and the axon tip of the other; where neurotransmitters cross

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons that are released by the sending neuron and bind to receiving neuron receptor sites determining whether there will be a neural impulse; allow for ion flow

Reuptake

The sending neuron reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitters

Endorphins

"Morphine within"; natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

ACh

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory; Alzheimer's

Dopamine

Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion; Oversupply -> Schizophrenia Undersupply -> Parkinson's

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; Undersupply -> depression

Norepinephrine

Helps control alertness and arousal; Undersupply -> depressed mood

GABA

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter; Undersupply -> seizures, tremors, insomnia

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory; Oversupply-> overstimulation (migraines, seizures)

Agonist

Molecules similar enough to a neurotransmitter to bind to its receptor and mimic its effects; some opiate drugs

Antagonist

Molecules that bind to receptors and block neurotransmitters

Nervous system

The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, made up of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central nervous system (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord; decision-maker

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body; gather information and transmits CNS decisions to body parts

Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Sensory neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the CNS

Motor neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the CNS to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

Neurons in the CNS that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs; majority of neurons; allows for human complexity

Somatic nervous system

The part of the PNS that enables voluntary control of our skeletal muscles

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

The part of the PNS that controls glands and muscles of internal organs; automatic

Sympathetic nervous system

The division of the ANS that arouses the body and mobilizes energy in stressful situations; causes increased heartbeat, increased blood pressure and sugar, slowed digestion, and perspiration

Parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving energy; causes opposite effects of sympathetic nervous system

Reflexes

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

Endocrine system

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues

Hypothalamus

The brain region controlling the pituitary gland

Thyroid gland

An endocrine gland in the neck that affects metabolism

Parathyroids

Endocrine glands right next to the thyroid that help regulate the calcium level in the blood

Pancreas

An endocrine system organ in the abdomen that regulates the level of sugar in the blood

Adrenal glands

A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress; ordered by the ANS; causes fight-or-flight response

Pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland; controlled by the hypothalamus; regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands; releases growth hormone and oxytocin

Lesion

A naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue; used in studies to see the effects on damage of brain damage

EEG

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface; measures by electrodes on the scalp

CT scan

A series of x-ray photos taken from different angles that reveal the brain's structure and damage

PET scan

A scan that depicts brain activity by showing each brain area's glucose consumption

MRI

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue, showing brain structure

fMRI

A technique for revealing bloodflow and therefore brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans taken during activity; shows brain region function and structure

Brainstem

The oldest part and center of the brain, acting as an extension of the spinal cord into the skull; controls basic survival functions

Medulla

The base of the brainstem; controls breathing and heartbeat

Thalamus

The brain's sensory control center located on top of the brainstem; directs sensory information to receiving regions higher up and sends replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Reticular formation

A nerve network that extends through the brainstem and thalamus; important in controlling arousal; filters stimuli and sends important information to other areas

Cerebellum

The "little brain" extending from the back of the brainstem made up of two halves; processes sensory input, coordinates movement output and balance, and enables nonverbal learning and memory

Limbic system

Neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres associated with emotions and drives; includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

Amygdala

Two lima bean-sized clusters in the limbic system associated with emotion (aggression and fear)

Hypothalamus

A small neural structure below the thalamus; controls maintenance (eating, drinking, body temp); helps control the endocrine system using the pituitary gland to secrete hormones; associated with emotion and reward

Cerebral cortex

A thin layer of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres like tree bark; the body's control and processing center

Glial cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; may also play a role in learning and thinking; communicate with neurons

Frontal lobes

Part of the cerebral cortex just behind the forehead; involved in speaking, muscle movement, and making plans and judgments

Parietal lobes

Part of the cerebral cortex at the top of the head toward the back; receive sensory input for touch and body position

Occipital lobes

Part of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head; receive visual information

Temporal lobes

Part of the cerebral cortex above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information from the opposite ear

Motor cortex

An area at the back of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movement

Somatosensory cortex

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Association areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; involved in higher functions like learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons

Corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres that carries messages between them; cut during a split-brain procedure

Split brains

The condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's hemispheres by cutting the corpus callosum

Consciousness

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Cognitive neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition

Dual processing

Information is often processed simultaneously on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Right hemisphere

Spatial perception, facial recognition, clarity, organization of sense of self, inference making

Left hemisphere

Speech and calculation

Behavior genetics

The study of the relative influence and limits of genetic and environmental factors on behavior

Environment

Every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Chromosomes

Threadlike structures made of coiled DNA containing genes

DNA

A complex molecule containing genetic material; makes up chromosomes

Genes

The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of creating proteins; can be activated or inactive depending on environmental events

Genome

All of the genetic material in an organism's chromosomes

Identical twins

Twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two; genetically identical

Fraternal twins

Twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs; genetically no different from non-twin siblings; share a fetal environment

Molecular genetics

The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

Interaction

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

Epigenetics

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without change in DNA

Evolutionary psychology

The study of evolution of behavior and the mind using principles of natural selection

Natural Selection

Among inherited trait variation, those benefitting reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to the next generation; offspring compete to survive, certain variations improve reproductive and survival chances, surviving offspring pass on genes, population characteristics may change as a result

Mutation

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Circadian rhythm

The 24-hour biological clock that our regular bodily rhythms (ex: body temp, sleep) occur on

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep; a sleep stage with high brain activity and vivid dreams; AKA paradoxical sleep because muscles are relaxed but brain is not

Alpha waves

The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

Sleep

Periodic, natural loss of consciousness

NREM-1

The transition into sleep, marked by slowed breathing, irregular brain waves, and hypnagogic sensations/hallucinations

Hallucinations

False sensory experiences

NREM-2

Sleep stage characterized by periodic sleep spindles, (bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity). About half the night

NREM-3

Sleep stage around 30 minutes when your brain emits large, slow delta waves, and you are hard to awaken; grows shorter and disappears part-way through the night

Delta waves

The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm; causes pineal gland to adjust melatonin based on light; controlled by proteins released as a result of light

Insomnia

Recurring problems falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable less than 5 minute sleep attacks where a person may fall right into REM sleep at random times