Final AP Psych Notes First Semester

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

instinct

a complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species

drive reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

basal metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure

sexual response cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

refractory period

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

sexual dysfunction

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning

estrogens

sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity

testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience

James-Lange Theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. The body's arousal and sympathetic nervous system are activated first, then resulting in an emotion.

Cannon-Bard Theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion. Arousal and emotion happen simultaneously.

two-factor theory

the Schachter-Singer theory (aka lazarus theory) that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal. Arousal and cognitive label result in emotion.

polygraph

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes).

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

tend-and-befriend response

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

psychophysiological illness

literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches

Psychoneuroimmunology

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

lymphocytes

The two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.

coronary heart disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries

Type A

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

Type B

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people

catharsis

in psychology, the idea that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

adaptation-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

relative deprivation

the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves

Insecure anxious attachment

constantly craving acceptance but remaining vigilant to signs of possible rejection

insecure avoidance attachment

discomfort of getting close to others, so they maintain distance

ventromedial hypothalamus

The part of the hypothalamus that produces feelings of fullness as opposed to hunger, and causes one to stop eating. Stimulate the ven and you will get thin

Lateral hypothalamus

The part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals. Stimulate the lat and you will get fat

Orexin hormone

hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus

Ghrelin hormone

increases hunger; secreted by empty stomach. Ghre-grumblin

Insulin hormone

increases hunger; secreted by pancreas

Leptin hormone

suppresses appetite; released by fat cells. tin thin

PPY Hormone

decreases hunger; released by the digestive tract

Zajonc/LeDoux theory

some embodied responses happen instantly, without conscious appraisal. They involve no deliberate thinking

Spill over effect

A heightened arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next even/emotion

flow

the experience between no work and a lot of work. Marks immersion into one's work

personnel psychology

studies the principles of selecting and evaluating workers

organizational psychology

studies how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, morale, satisfaction, and productivity

achievement motivation

desire for significant accomplishment, mastery of skills, control, and attaining a high standard

grit

passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long term goals

task leadership

involves setting standards, organizing work, and focusing on goals

social leadership

Involves mediating conflicts and building high achieving teams.

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

long term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit/declarative memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. We encode explicit memories through this

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. Produces implicit memories

implicit/procedural memory

retention independent of conscious recollection. Memories that are skills like tying your shoes

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

flashbulb/episodic memories

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. A unique and highly emotional moment that may give rise to a clear, strong, and persistent memory. This memory is not free from error.

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

Serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the first and last items on a list.

Next in line effect

when you're so anxious about being next that you cannot remember what the person just before you in line says, but you can recall what other people around you say

Primary effect

remembering the first items on a list. We remember these items better when retrieved/recalled after a delay of time.

Recency effect

remembering the last items on a list. We remember this best when it is retrieved/recalled immediately.

Method of Loci

visually imagining the location of people or things. Finding items

Link method

Involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together. Grouping similar items to remember them.

Acoustic method of encoding

the encoding of sound

semantic method of encoding

the encoding of meaning or value. Retains the most information

visual method of encoding

the encoding of picture images

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information (ex: calling your girlfriend your ex's name)

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information (ex: someone sings new lyrics to an old song, so you forget the original lyrics)

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Responsible for many false memories along with the misinformation effect

deja vu

the eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience