Longhorn Cattle Drive 400 terms

Absolute threshold

Minimum level of stimulus intensity that a person can detect for a given type of sensory input. It refers to the point at which a stimulus is just barely detectable by an individual. The threshold can vary depending on the sensory modality being tested and the specific characteristics of the stimulus, such as its brightness, loudness, or taste. Absolute threshold is an important concept in psychology and neuroscience, as it helps researchers understand the limits and capabilities of the human senses.

Accommodation (perceptual & Piaget)

Process in which individuals adjust their perception or thinking to fit new information. In perceptual psychology, it refers to the lens of the eye changing shape to focus on objects at different distances. In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, it refers to modifying existing mental structures to fit new information.

Acetylcholine (Ach)

Neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in muscle control, learning, memory, and attention. It is synthesized in the presynaptic terminal, released into the synaptic cleft, and binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. ACh is particularly important in the functioning of the neuromuscular junction and cognitive processes, and deficiencies may contribute to cognitive impairments like Alzheimer's disease.

Action Potential

Brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon of a neuron. It is generated when the neuron is stimulated and reaches a threshold level of depolarization. This triggers the opening of voltage-gated ion channels and the influx of positively charged ions, which propagates the action potential down the axon. Once the signal reaches the end of the axon, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters, allowing communication with other neurons. Action potentials are essential for communication between neurons and for the transmission of information in the nervous system.

Acuity (vision

Refers to the sharpness or clarity of visual perception. It is the ability to distinguish fine details and see objects clearly. Visual acuity is typically measured by assessing a person's ability to identify letters or shapes on an eye chart at a standardized distance. The measurement is expressed as a ratio of the distance at which the chart is viewed compared to the distance at which a person with normal vision can identify the same letters or shapes. Visual acuity can be affected by various factors, including the health of the eye and the quality of the optical system.

Adler, Alfred (inferiority complex)

Psychoanalyst who introduced the concept of the "inferiority complex". He believed that feelings of inferiority or inadequacy can motivate individuals to strive for success and fulfillment. Adler believed that people could overcome these feelings by compensating with skills or accomplishments in areas where they feel deficient. The inferiority complex has been used to explain various behaviors and conditions, including social anxiety and perfectionism.

Adrenal glands

Pair of small glands located on top of each kidney. They produce hormones that play a crucial role in the body's response to stress, including cortisol and adrenaline. These hormones help to regulate the body's metabolism, blood pressure, immune system, and response to stress.

Afferent vs. Efferent neurons

Also known as sensory neurons, transmit sensory information from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system. Efferent neurons, also known as motor neurons, transmit motor signals from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands of the body. These two types of neurons work together to allow for sensory input and motor output, which are essential for movement and perception.

Androgyny

Refers to a gender identity or expression that combines or blurs traditionally masculine and feminine characteristics.

Aggression

behavior that is intended to harm or injure another individual. It can take many forms, including physical violence, verbal abuse, and social exclusion. Aggression can be influenced by a variety of factors, including genetics, upbringing, and environmental factors.

Agonist/antagonist

An agonist is a substance that activates a receptor in the body, causing a response similar to that of the endogenous ligand. In pharmacology, agonists can be used to treat a variety of medical conditions by mimicking the action of natural compounds in the body. In contrast, an antagonist is a substance that blocks or inhibits the action of an agonist by binding to the receptor without activating it.

Agoraphobia

Agoraphobia is a type of anxiety disorder characterized by an intense fear of being in situations or places where escape might be difficult or help might not be available in the event of a panic attack or other symptoms. Individuals with agoraphobia may avoid situations such as public transportation, crowded places, or being alone outside of the home. Agoraphobia can be treated with a combination of psychotherapy and medication, and with proper treatment, individuals with agoraphobia can learn to manage their symptoms and improve their quality of life.

Algorithms

Systematic, step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or completing a task. Algorithms can be applied to a wide range of cognitive processes, including perception, memory, and decision-making. Can be learned and automated.

All or none law

Principle in physiology that states that a neuron will either fire an action potential at full strength or not at all, depending on whether or not the threshold of excitation has been reached.

Altruism

Selfless behavior aimed at promoting the well-being of others, even at a personal cost to the individual performing the behavior.

Alzheimer’s disease (+ neurotransmitter)

progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects memory, thinking, and behavior. It is characterized by the accumulation of abnormal protein fragments called beta-amyloid plaques and tau tangles in the brain, leading to the death of neurons and a decrease in the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

American Psychological Association (APA)

a professional organization for psychologists in the United States that aims to advance the field of psychology and promote the well-being of individuals and society.

Amnesia (retrograde and anterograde)

Amnesia is a condition characterized by partial or complete memory loss. Retrograde amnesia refers to the loss of memories from the past, while anterograde amnesia refers to the inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia. Both types of amnesia can be caused by physical injury, illness, or psychological trauma.

Amygdala

small almond-shaped structure in the brain that plays a crucial role in the processing and regulation of emotions, particularly fear and anxiety.

Anorexia

Anorexia, or anorexia nervosa, is a serious eating disorder characterized by a distorted body image and an intense fear of gaining weight, leading to severe weight loss and physical and psychological health problems.

Antidepressants drugs

medications used to treat depression and other mood disorders by regulating levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine.

Antipsychotic drugs

medications used to treat psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain.

Antisocial personality disorder

personality disorder characterized by a pattern of disregard for the rights and feelings of others, and a lack of empathy or remorse.

Anxiety disorders

group of mental health conditions characterized by excessive worry, fear, or nervousness in response to real or perceived threats or stressors, and can include conditions such as generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder.

Archetypes

universal, symbolic patterns or images that are present in the collective unconscious and reflect fundamental human experiences and emotions.

Assimilation

process of incorporating new information into existing schemas or cognitive structures, according to Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

Asch's conformity study

series of experiments that demonstrated the power of social influence and conformity in shaping individual behavior and decision-making.

Association areas

Regions of the brain that integrate sensory information and are involved in higher-order cognitive functions such as memory, learning, and decision-making.

Attachment (Ainsworth and Harlow)

refers to the emotional bond that develops between an infant and a caregiver, and was studied by Mary Ainsworth through the Strange Situation experiment, and by Harry Harlow through the use of surrogate mothers.

Attitude

psychological construct that represents an individual's positive or negative evaluation of a particular object, person, group, or idea, and can influence behavior and decision-making.

Attribution

process of explaining the causes of behavior or events, and can be influenced by factors such as the observer's perspective, the perceived intentionality of the actor, and the context of the situation.

Autonomic nervous system

a branch of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions of the body.

Availability heuristic

Cognitive bias in which individuals make judgments or decisions based on the ease with which information comes to mind, rather than the actual likelihood of the event or outcome.

Aversion therapy

type of behavioral therapy that aims to reduce unwanted behaviors or habits by pairing them with unpleasant or aversive stimuli, such as electric shocks or bad-tasting substances.

Axon

long, slender projection of a nerve cell that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body and toward other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

study on the effects of social modeling on behavior, and demonstrated that children who observed aggressive behavior toward a toy doll were more likely to imitate the behavior themselves.

Basilar membrane

contains tiny hair cells that are responsible for detecting different frequencies of sound vibrations. When sound waves enter the cochlea, they cause the basilar membrane to vibrate, which in turn causes the hair cells to move and send electrical signals to the brain. This process is essential for hearing and understanding sound.

Behavior therapy

type of psychotherapy that focuses on modifying maladaptive or problematic behaviors by using techniques such as reinforcement, punishment, and modeling.

Behaviorism

psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors and the environmental factors that shape them, while ignoring mental processes such as thoughts and emotions.

Bell curve

graphical representation of a normal distribution of data, and is often used in psychology to describe the distribution of cognitive ability or intelligence test scores in a population.

Big Five(Traits)

The Big Five, or Five Factor Model

theory of personality that identifies five broad dimensions of personality traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Binocular cues

visual cues that rely on information from both eyes to perceive depth and distance, such as convergence, retinal disparity, and stereopsis.

Biofeedback

technique that uses electronic monitoring equipment to help individuals learn how to control their physiological processes, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and muscle tension.

Biopsychosocial model

a framework used in psychology to understand the complex interplay between biological, psychological, and social factors in influencing health and illness.

Bipolar disorder

also known as manic-depressive disorder, is a mood disorder characterized by episodes of depression and mania and is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic, environmental, and neurological factors.

Blind spot

area of the retina in each eye where the optic nerve exits, and is devoid of photoreceptor cells, resulting in a lack of sensitivity to visual stimuli in that region.

Bottom-upprocessing

type of perceptual processing that relies on sensory information from the environment to form perceptions and interpretations, rather than top-down processing, which is driven by prior knowledge and expectations.

Broca’s aphasia

type of language disorder that is characterized by difficulty producing speech, and is caused by damage to the Broca's area in the brain, which is involved in the production of language.

Bulimia

Eating disorder characterized by episodes of binge eating followed by purging behaviors such as vomiting or laxative use, and is often accompanied by feelings of guilt, shame, and anxiety.

Bystander effect

phenomenon in which individuals are less likely to offer help in an emergency situation when other people are present, due to diffusion of responsibility and the belief that someone else will intervene.

Cannon Bard Theory

theory of emotion that suggests that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously and independently of each other, and are both triggered by a stimulus.

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Case study

research method that involves in-depth, detailed investigation of a single individual, group, or phenomenon, often using multiple sources of data and analysis.

Catharsis

release of emotional tension or negative feelings through a form of expression or activity, such as talking, writing, or art.

Cell body (soma)

main part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and other organelles, and is responsible for maintaining the cell's metabolic functions.

Central nervous system (CNS)

part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord, and is responsible for processing and coordinating sensory and motor information.

Cerebellum

structure located in the hindbrain that is involved in the coordination and regulation of movement, as well as some cognitive functions such as attention and language.

Cerebral cortex

the outer layer of the brain that is responsible for processing and integrating sensory information, as well as controlling conscious thought, decision-making, and voluntary movement. It is divided into four main lobes: the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe, each with specialized functions.

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Chromosomes

structures made of DNA and protein that carry genetic information and are found in the nucleus of cells. In humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes, with one set inherited from each parent.

Chunking

memory technique that involves grouping or organizing information into smaller, more meaningful units or chunks, in order to improve memory capacity and recall.

Circadian rhythms

biological rhythms that are synchronized with the 24-hour day-night cycle, and regulate a wide range of physiological and behavioral processes, such as sleep, hormone secretion, and metabolism.

Classical conditioning

type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, resulting in a conditioned response to the previously neutral stimulus.

Client centered therapy (Rogers)

humanistic therapy approach that emphasizes the importance of unconditional positive regard, empathy, and active listening in promoting personal growth and self-acceptance in the client.

Cochlea

spiral-shaped structure located in the inner ear that is responsible for transducing sound waves into electrical signals that can be interpreted by the brain.

Cocktail party effect

ability to selectively attend to one conversation or auditory stimulus while filtering out other distractions, such as background noise or other conversations.

Cognition

the mental processes involved in perception, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, and memory.

Cognitive dissonance

psychological state characterized by discomfort or mental stress caused by holding conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or values, and is often resolved by changing one's beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discrepancy.

Cognitive map

mental representation of the layout or structure of a physical environment, such as a building or city, that helps individuals navigate and remember spatial information.

Cognitive psychology

branch of psychology that focuses on the study of mental processes, such as perception, attention, memory, language, thinking, and problem-solving.

Cognitive therapy

type of psychotherapy that focuses on identifying and changing maladaptive thought patterns and beliefs that contribute to negative emotions and behaviors.

Collective unconscious

proposed by Carl Jung, is a theoretical construct that suggests that there is a shared, inherited reservoir of knowledge and experience that is present in the unconscious minds of all individuals.

Concept

mental representation of a category or class of objects, events, or ideas that share common features or characteristics.

Conditioning acronyms (UCR, UCS, CR, CS)

basic components of classical conditioning: the unconditioned response, unconditioned stimulus, conditioned response, and conditioned stimulus, respectively.

Cones

photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that are responsible for color vision and high visual acuity in bright light conditions.

Confirmation bias

a cognitive bias in which individuals tend to selectively seek out or interpret information in a way that confirms their pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses, while ignoring or discounting information that contradicts them.

Conflicts (4 types)

approach-approach, approach-avoidance, avoidance-avoidance, and multiple approach-avoidance.

Conformity

social influence process in which individuals adjust their attitudes or behaviors to conform to the norms and expectations of a group or society.

Confounding variable

extraneous variable that is not controlled for in a study, and that can influence the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Consciousness

the awareness or subjective experience of the self and the environment, and can be altered by a variety of factors, such as sleep, drugs, meditation, and hypnosis.

Continuous reinforcement

type of reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs, resulting in rapid learning and high response rates.

Control group

group in an experiment that is not exposed to the experimental treatment or manipulation, and is used as a baseline for comparison with the experimental group.

Convergence

binocular cue to depth perception that results from the inward movement of the eyes when focusing on a nearby object, while divergent thinking refers to a type of creative thinking that involves generating multiple solutions or ideas to a problem.

Convergent/divergent thinking

type of problem-solving that involves narrowing down possible solutions to a specific answer or goal, while divergent thinking refers to a type of creative thinking that involves generating multiple solutions or ideas to a problem.

Conversion disorders

group of psychological disorders characterized by the presence of physical symptoms or deficits that cannot be explained by medical or neurological factors, and that are believed to be caused by psychological stress or trauma.

Cornea

the transparent, dome-shaped tissue at the front of the eye that helps to refract and focus incoming light.

Corpus collosum

broad band of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain, and is involved in communication and coordination between the two sides.

Correlation coefficient

statistical measure that quantifies the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, with values ranging from -1 to +1.

Correlational research

type of research design that examines the relationship between two or more variables, without manipulating them, in order to identify patterns or associations.

Creativity

the ability to generate novel, original, and valuable ideas, products, or solutions, and is often considered a complex interplay between cognitive, personality, and environmental factors.

Critical period

a developmental window during which an organism is particularly sensitive or responsive to certain environmental stimuli or experiences, and during which certain skills or abilities are acquired more easily or effectively.

Cross sectional study

type of research design that compares groups of individuals of different ages, at a single point in time, in order to investigate age-related differences or trends.

Crystallized intelligence

the accumulated knowledge, skills, and expertise acquired through experience and education, and is often measured by tests of vocabulary, general knowledge, and verbal comprehension.

CT (computed tomography) scan

medical imaging technique that uses X-rays to produce cross-sectional images of the body or brain, which can be used to diagnose and monitor a variety of conditions.

Deafness (types)

several types, including conductive deafness, sensorineural deafness, and mixed deafness, depending on the underlying cause and location of the hearing loss.

Declarative memory

type of long-term memory that involves the conscious recall of facts, events, or concepts, and is often divided into two types: semantic memory and episodic memory.

Defense mechanisms (all types)

psychological strategies that individuals use to protect themselves from anxiety, conflict, or distress, and include repression, denial, projection, and rationalization, among others.

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness, self-restraint, and personal identity that can occur when individuals are part of a large group or social context that promotes anonymity, conformity, or arousal.

Delusions

false or irrational beliefs that are not based on reality and can be a symptom of several psychological or neurological disorders, such as schizophrenia or dementia.

Dendrites

the branched extensions of a neuron that receive incoming signals or information from other neurons or sensory receptors, and transmit them toward the cell body.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A complex molecule that contains the genetic instructions for the development, growth, and functioning of all living organisms, and is organized into chromosomes in the nucleus of cells.

Dependent variable

the variable that is being measured or observed in an experiment, and that is expected to change or vary in response to the manipulation of the independent variable.