NS 001 Midterms

Albert einstein’s geometric theory of gravitation

1915

Richard Tolman’s oscillating universe theory

1920

Einstein Published a new general theory of relativity of the universe

1917

Georges Henri joseph Eduard Lemaitres discovering of expansion of the universe

1927

Edwin hubbies concept of universe expanding with graph plotting

1929

Sir Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold and sir fred moyle’s steady state universe today

1948

Term by Fred Hoyle during a British broadcasting corporation radio broadcast

1950

Radio astronomers arno penzias and robert wilson’s cosmic microwave background

1965

composition of the universe

Dark energy

Dark matter

Normal Matter

About 68 % of the hypothetical form of energy which is assumed to be responsible for universe expanding at accelerating rate

Dark energy (anti gravity)

About 27% hypothetical kind of matter that is invisible to electromagnetic spectrum

Dark Matter (gravity)

about 5% 2 types of normal matter

quarks - protons and neutrons

leptons- Electrons, moons and taus

Normal matter (true matter)

Immanuel kant published universal natural history and theory heavens

1755

two models of the solar system

Geocentric theory-Claudius Ptolemy Geo -earth centric- center

Heliocentric Theory - Nicholas Copernicus helio- sun centric- center

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Gravitational pull or force (dark energy) up

down dark matter

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The massive the planet is the bigger gravitational force

comets (icy body)

kuiper belt

asteroid

asteroid belt

the expansion of the universe

George Lemaitre

terrestrial planet (inner planets)

Mercury

Venus

Earth

Mars

Giant Planets ( outer planets)

Jupiter'

Saturn

Uranus

Neptune

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Earth and venus - Sister planets

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Uranus and Neptune - Sister Planets

smallest planet; closest to the sun orbits about 88 days / years

Mercury

The hottest planet in the solar system has the longest period 243 days

Venus

Largest Terrestrial planet complete speroid

Earth

Red planet. Have largest dust storms 2 small moons Phobos and Deimos

Mars

the largest planet with the shortest day , 1 day in jupiter 9 hours and 55 mins(9.9 hours)

Jupiter

Famous Feature of Saturn is ring system which is composed mostly of ice particles

Saturn

very cold planet -224 degrees Celsius (coldest planet and rains diamonds)

Uranus

the Ice giant ( rings but made with ice)

Neptune

Saturn Hypothesis

1. Disrupted moon hypothesis (Impact if moon disrupt)

2. Roche limit (tidal effect impact moons)

3. Capture hypothesis ( Gravitational Force )

4. Primordial hypothesis ( icy rock)

Galaxy contains our solar system

Milkyway

Andromeda

Spiral Galaxy

3C 244.1

Elliptical galaxy

Sumbrero

Lenticular galaxy

Magellanic cloud

irregular galaxy

Small objects made of rocks revolving around the sun

(too small to be called a planet rocky body smaller than a planet that orbits the sun)

Asteroid belt

small particles from a comet or asteroid orbiting the sun

meteoroid

types of meteoroid

comets

asteroid (not asteroid and comets meteoroid)

production streak of light when a meteoroid enters earths surface

meteor

several meteors originate from same part of the sky

meteor shower

a portion of meteoroid or asteroid that hits the ground without being destroyed

meteorite

icy body releases gases as it orbit s the

comet

estimated age 4.5 billion years

earth

causes metals, ice, and tiltation ( rotation and revolution)

rocks

discover layers of the earth

device

age core sample

ice core sample

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Some scientists even speculate that a large collusion with foreign body caused its present tilatation

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the primitive volcanoes would continuously and randomly erupt

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flying planetary debris and other masses passed into earth’s orbit

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Over time, the earth cooled and formed a solid crust the denser materials later on sank to the core

gassing continued to for steam and eventually rain

volcanic out

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some of the water on earth is also believed came from outer space

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different events continued while the earth was spinning and it contributed

The Big Bang theory suggests that the universe began around 13.8 billion years ago from a singularity. A singularity is a point in space and time where the laws of physics break down, and conditions are incredibly dense and hot.

The initial state of the universe was incredibly tiny, hot, and dense, and it rapidly expanded, leading to the universe we observe today. This expansion continues even today. One of the most compelling pieces of evidence for the Big Bang theory is the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB). This is a faint glow of microwave radiation that fills the universe and is considered the afterglow of the initial explosion.

BIG BANG THEORY

gas

Co2 atmosphere eveporation

food

prokaryotes

plants animal

bacteria

oxygen gristle lights (3.51)

photosynthetic

The steady state theory is a theory proposed by Fred Hoyle, Herman Bondi, and Thomas Gold in 1948. It suggests that the universe has no beginning and no end. It also explains that

Steady State Theory

refers to the solid part of the Earth. Those regions are the crust, the mantle, andthe core.

It also includes the continents, rocks, minerals, and landforms.

GEOSPHERE

Understanding the geosphere is important because it has a significant impact on the Earth's environment and our daily life

SIGNIFICANCE

MAJOR LAYERS

• CRUST

• MANTLE

• OUTER CORE

• INNER CORE

LAYERS OF THE GEOSPHERE

MINOR LAYERS

• LITHOSPHERE

• ASTHENOSPHERE

LAYERS OF THE GEOSPHERE

The crust is where most geological activities we observe, such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain building, primarily occur. The Earth's crust is the outermost layer and is relatively thin compared to the other layers. There are two types of crust: the continental crust and the oceanic crust

CRUST

It is thicker and less dense than the oceanic crust, primarily composed of granite rocks.

Continental Crust

It is thinner and denser than continental crust, mainly composed of basalt rocks.

Oceanic Crust

Difference between

Oceanic and Continental crust

Thickness

Density (due to its composition)

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It includes the Earth's crust and a portion of the upper mantle. The lithosphere is broken into several large and small tectonic plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath them

LITHOSPHERE

The mantle or also called mesosphere is solid and composed of silicate minerals, but it can flow over long periods of time, contributing to the slow movement of tectonic plates.

MANTLE

Beneath the lithosphere lies the asthenosphere, which is a semi-fluid layer of the upper mantle. The asthenosphere is partially molten and ductile, allowing the lithospheric plates to move and interact. It is responsible for the movement of tectonic plates called convection current.

ASTHENOSPHERE

Beneath the mantle lies the outer core, which is a liquid layer composed mainly of iron and nickel. The outer core is responsible for generating the Earth's magnetic field through the movement of molten iron.

OUTER CORE

It is a solid sphere composed primarily of iron and nickel, with temperatures and pressures so high that the metals are in a solid state despite being extremely hot.

The immense pressure keeps the inner core solid despite the high temperatures.

INNER CORE

are formed from the cooling and solidification of molten magma or lava. Magma is the molten rock beneath the Earth's surface, while lava is molten rock that erupts at the surface.

Examples: Granite (a common intrusive igneous rock), basalt (a common extrusive igneous rock).

IGNEOUS ROCK

are formed from the accumulation and cementation of mineral and organic particles, often derived from the erosion and weathering of pre-existing rocks. These particles are transported, deposited, and then compacted and cemented together to form solid rocks.

SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Examples: Sandstone (formed from sand particles), limestone (composed of calcium carbonate from marine organisms), and shale (formed from clay and silt particles).

SEDIMENTARY ROCK examples

formed from the alteration of existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks) due to high temperature, high pressure, or chemical processes without completely melting the rock.

Keyword: Layering or Banding

METAMORPHIC ROCK

Examples: Marble (metamorphosed from limestone), schist (often formed from shale or clay), quartzite (metamorphosed from sandstone).

METAMORPHIC ROCK example

Origin: Igneous rocks originate from molten magma or lava. Sedimentary rocks form from accumulated and cemented particles. Metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of existing rocks under high heat and pressure. Processes: Igneous rocks form through cooling and solidification. Sedimentary rocks form through erosion, transportation, deposition, and cementation. Metamorphic rocks form through alteration without melting, due to high heat and pressure.

KEY DIFFERENCES

Volcanism refers to the process by which magma from within the Earth erupts at the surface, resulting in volcanic activity. This activity can take various forms, including eruptions of lava, ash, and gases. Volcanism plays a significant role in shaping the Earth's surface and has both constructive and destructive effects on the environment.

VOLCANISM

Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains the movement and interactions of Earth's lithospheric plates. The Earth's lithosphere (the rigid outer layer) is divided into several large and small plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath them.

PLATE TECTONICS

There are several types of plate boundaries, each characterized by the relative motion of the adjacent plates

PLATE BOUNDARIES

CONVERGENT

DIVERGENT

TRANSFORM

there are 3 types of plate boundaries

plates move toward each other. When two plates collide, one plate may be forced beneath the other in a process called subduction. Subduction zones often result in the formation of deep ocean trenches and volcanic arcs

CONVERGENT

plates move away from each other. This movement creates new oceanic crust as magma rises from below the Earth's surface and solidifies at mid-ocean ridges.

DIVERGENT

plates slide past each other horizontally. This lateral movement is responsible for earthquakes along fault lines.

TRANSFORM

These currents cause the solid, rigid plates of the lithosphere to move slowly over geological time scales. As hotter, less dense material rises due to convection, cooler, denser material sinks, creating a circular motion.

CONVECTION CURRENT

refers to the process of breaking down rocks and minerals on the Earth's surface into smaller particles

Weathering occurs in place and does not involve the movement of material from one location to another

WEATHERING

the process of transporting weathered material (sediments, soil, rocks) from one location to another. Erosion occurs due to the action of natural forces such as water, wind, ice, and gravity. These agents of erosion can carry sediments over long distances, shaping the landscape as they move material from higher elevations to lower elevations or from one location to another.

EROSION

EROSION

Weathering: Involves the breakdown of rocks into smaller particles through physical, chemical, or biological processes.

Erosion: Involves the movement of weathered material by natural agents like water, wind, ice, or gravity.

KEY DIFFERENCE

refers to all the water on Earth's surface, including water in oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, groundwater, glaciers, and even water vapor in the atmosphere. It encompasses all forms of water, whether liquid, solid, or gaseous, and it plays a vital role in supporting life and shaping the Earth's climate and geological processes.

HYDROSPHERE

Water in the hydrosphere is distributed across various reservoirs. These can be based on its composition which is saltwater or freshwater or it can be based on its location which is surface water or groundwater.

DISTRIBUTION OF WATER ON EARTH

the primary distinction between saltwater and freshwater lies in their salinity levels, sources, and the ecosystems they support. Both types of water are vital for the Earth's natural balance and are essential for various forms of life

SALT WATER AND FRESH WATER

is visible and located above the ground,

SURFACE WATER

Oceans are vast bodies of saltwater that cover about 71% of the Earth's surface. They are interconnected and contain approximately 97.5% of the Earth's water. Oceans have a high salt concentration. It houses wide variety of marine life.

SALTWATER OCEAN - SURFACE WATER

Seas are smaller bodies of saltwater partially enclosed by land. They are often connected to oceans and are shallower than oceans

SALTWATER SEAS - SURFACE WATER

is hidden beneath the Earth's surface.

GROUND WATER

Some lakes, especially those in arid regions, have a high salt concentration due to the evaporation of water, leaving behind salts. The Dead Sea, located between Jordan and Israel, is one such example.

SALTWATER SALTWATER LAKES - SURFACE WATER

Rivers are flowing bodies of freshwater that typically originate from mountainous regions and flow towards oceans, seas, or lakes. They are essential for transportation, irrigation, and supporting various ecosystems

FRESH WATER RIVER - SURFACE WATER

Lakes are inland bodies of freshwater, ranging from small ponds to large, deep lakes. They are fed by rivers, streams, or groundwater and play a vital role in providing freshwater for human use and supporting aquatic life

FRESH WATER LAKES - SURFACE WATER