Psych

psychology

the scientific study of behavior and the mind

behavior

observable activities

the mind

subjective experiences

experimental psychologists

psychologists who conduct experiments and studies to further theories in the field

applied psychologists

psychologists who apply theories to solve real

psychiatrist

a professional with an MD who treats disturbances in mental health with medication and talk therapy

clinical psychologist

A professional with a Ph.D/PsyD. in clinical psychology who treats disturbances in mental health with different types of talk therapy

counseling psychologist

A professional with a PhD. Ed.D, or Masters who historically provided vocational guidance but today typically treats disturbances in mental health with different forms of talk therapy

school psychology

subset of psychology that deals with education, how to teach, and school environments

sport psychology

subset of psychology that deals with teams, motivation, coach interactions, and rehabilitation

cognitive psychology

subset of psychology that deals with how we process info, judgments, and how we think about our environment

developmental psychology

subset of psychology that deals with how thoughts and behavior develop from birth to death

industrial/organizational psychology

subset of psychology that deals with work settings, leadership, and morale

learning and memory psychology

subset of psychology that deals with conditioning (reward and punishment), animal work, and memory processes

psychobiology/psychophysiology

subset of psychology that deals with how the mind and physical body (mostly the brain) work together

quantitative psychology

subset of psychology that deals with mathematical theories of thought and behavior, and statistics

social psychology

subset of psychology that deals with relationships, stereotypes and prejudices, attitudes, groups, and the self

marketing/consumer behavior

subset of psychology that deals with how people make purchasing decisions, brand loyalty, and decision choice set

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe that

one would have foreseen something, after the

outcome occurs

Things that lead us to overestimate our intuition

hindsight bias, overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events

case study

Examination of one individual in depth. Does not allow us to discern general principles that apply to everyone.

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. Describes behavior, but does not explain it.

correlational research

Focus: prediction; observe the relationships between two or more variables

Pros:

1. can study issues that would otherwise be impossible or unethical

2. efficient; allow researchers to collect more

information and test more relationships

Cons: cannot conclude a casual relationship

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things. Assess how strongly and in what direction that are associated

observational research

their behavior

Pros: good place to start

Cons:

1. hard to implement

2. hard to quantify

3. open to bias

experimental research

Focus: to determine causality

Requires:

1. Manipulation of one of more variable

2. Random assignment

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of being included

random assignment

Equalizes experimental groups and control groups by assuring that each participant in the sample has an equal chance of being placed in any condition. Crucial to establishing causality in an experiment

independent variable (IV)

An experimental factor that is varied independently of other factors. This is manipulated by the researcher and is interpreted as cause of change in dependent variable

dependent variables (DV)

An experimental factor that can vary depending on what takes place during the experiment. This is the outcome being studied in the experiment, and is a result of the independent variable.

confounding variables

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce and effect in an experiment

double

blind procedure

placebo effect

experimental results causes by expectations alone

internal validity

the effects in the DV are caused by the IV

external validity

degree to which research findings can be generalized to other situations ("real world" effects)

field experiments

Examines behavior in its natural habitat. High in external validity, low in internal validity

laboratory experiments

Done in an artificial setting. High in internal validity, low in external validity

The American Psychological Association's guidelines for ethical research mandates:

1. Informed consent

2. Debriefing

3. Weighing costs of research against benefits

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

experimenter bias

subtle cues from the researcher may influence behavior of participants

subject bias

the mere fact of knowing one is participating in a study may influence one's behavior

solutions to experimenter bias

1. "Blind" research assistants

2. standardize research procedures (i.e. use a computer system to ask survey question)

solutions to subject bias

1. Unobtrusive research methods

2. Do not tell subjects goals or hypothesis of study

biological psychology

The study of the brain, the nervous system, genetics, and how they relate to behavior and mental processes

central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Nerves that radiate from the spinal cord (CNS) to the rest of the body. Contains the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

somatic nervous system

Part of the PNS. Voluntary. Transmits signal from sensory organs to the CNS and from the CNS to skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

Part of the PNS. Automatic. Interprets and stores information and communicates with muscles, glands, and organs. Contains sympathetic and parasympathetic systems

sympathetic

Division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. "Fight or flight" respons

parasympathetic

Division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

neurons

a nerve cell; basic building block of the nervous system

sensory neurons

from tissues and sensory organs to brain and spinal cord

motor neurons

carry outgoing information from CNS to muscles and glands

interneurons

internally communicated between sensory outputs and motor outputs

reflex

when an interneuron allows a sensory neuron to communicate directly with a motor neuron in reaction to painful stimuli

dendrites

a neurons's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles and glands

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

ALS ( Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis)

Literally means "no muscle nourishment." The progressive degeneration and death of motor neurons in brain/spinal cord that control voluntary muscle movement. Patients in the later stages of the disease may become totally paralyzed.

action potential

a brief electrical charge that travels down a neuron's axon in response to stimuli from our senses or a trigger of chemical signals from neighboring neurons.

resting potential

Negative inside neuron; fluid inside a resting axon has mostly negative ions

How action potential works

• Opens Na+ gates \= Na+ passes inside the neuron

• Subsequently causes K+ gates to open \= K+ passes outside the neuron

• Process continues down the neuron

• Initial resting potential inside neuron restored using a proton pump

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

One of the most understood neurotransmitters. Serves as messenger at every junction between motor neurons and skeletal muscles When released to muscle cell receptors, the muscle contracts. If transmission is blocked, muscles cannot contract.

Dopamine

Influences mood, control of voluntary experiences & processing of rewarding experiences. Can both excite or inhibit, depending on receptors on neuron. Oversupply linked to schizophrenia, undersupply linked to tremors in Parkinson's disease.

serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression; some antidepressants (SSRIs) raise levels or decrease its reuptake to combat this

norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

GABA

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter; prevents neurons from generating an action potential. Facilitates sleep and reduces arousal of the nervous system.

hindbrain

Comprised of medulla/pons, brainstem, and cerebellum; responsible for basic functions that sustain the body

brainstem

Comprised of medulla and pons. Nerve cells in the medulla connect with the body to perform basic functions such as regulating breathing, heart rate, sneezing, salivating, vomiting (actions w/out conscious control)

cerebellum

Also called the "little brain," this lobe

midbrain

Structures that control basic sensory responses and those that are involved in the control of voluntary movement. Includes neurons that contain very dense concentrations of dopamine receptors and activity that send messages to higher brain centers that control movement

forebrain

Consists of multiple interconnections and structures critical to complex processes such as emotion, memory, thinking, and reasoning. Includes basal ganglia and limbic system.