AP-Pysc - Unit 2: Biological Bases of Behavior

Neuron

are the basic units of the nervous system - they are the building blocks of our brains, spinal cords, and nerves

Dendrites

receive messages from other neurons

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin Sheath

Fatty tissue, that insulates the axons of the neurons; speeding up the transmission of the message

Cell Body (Soma)

contains nucleus

Axon Terminal Buttons (buds)

The end point of a neuron that releases neurotransmitters into the synapse, hence sending the message onto the next neuron

Action potential

electrical signal that moves down the neuron's axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

synapse

A junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next.

glial cells

support, nourish, and protect neurons

receptor sites

Locations on a receptor neuron into which a specific neurotransmitter fits like a key into a lock.

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

all-or-none principle

the law that the neuron either fires at 100% or not at all

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system.

endorphins

neurotransmitters involved in natural pain reduction and reward

GABA

Neurotransmitter that usually communicates an inhibitory message

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep, arousal, and mood.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation

Central Nervous System (CNS)

consists of the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

reflexes

specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Thyroid

regulates metabolism

pancreas

Regulates the level of sugar in the blood

adernal glands

A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Gonads

ovaries and testes

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Lesions

removal or destruction of part of the brain

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

record of the electrical activity of the brain

computed tomography (CT)

brain-imaging method using computer-controlled X-rays of the brain

posistion emission tomography (PET)

lets doctors see direct information about the brain while it is completing certain tasks

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

an imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain by measuring changes in the blood's oxygen levels

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Pons

A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Cerebellum

Balance and coordination

limbic system

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

crucial to both spatial memory and creating new memories

Hypthalamus

maintains our bodies internal equilibrium (homeostasis), keeping it in a stable resting state.

cerebral cortex

is the outer layer of the hemispheres. It is the site of all thoughts, detailed perceptions, complex behaviors all our highest mental powers

frontal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

prefrontal cortex

personality, decision-making, goal-setting, controlling emotions, reasoning, biological underpinnings of personality, temperament, and our sense of "self", understanding other people and following social norms

motor cortex

it sends messages to the body telling it to move, the motor cortex contains an upside down map of the human body called a homuncolus

Brocas area

faciliates the production of speech

Parietal Lobe

receives sensory input for touch and body position

somatosensory cortex

registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

temporal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.

auditory cortex

the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information

Wernicke's area

on the border with the parietal lobe, which allows us to process and comprehend language

occiptal lobe

visual processing

primary visual cortex

major destination for visual information

corpus callosum

the two hemispheres communicate via a bundle of nerves called

association areas

over half of the cerebal cortex is uncommitted to sensory or muscular activity. These "areas" are involved in higher mental functioning, and include Wernickes area, Broca's area, and the prefrontal cortex.

Left hemisphere

controls and takes in sensory information from the right side of the body

Right hemisphere

controls and takes in sensory information from the left side of the body

Neuroplasticity

the ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

split-brain research

peoples who corpus callosums are severed

consciousness

consists of your moment-by-moment personal experiences, including sensations, thoughts, memories, and anything you're currently experiencing. actively aware, prioritizes the information we need, consciousness helps you deal with novel or difficult problems

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

"high road"

what we are consciously aware of

"low road"

processing that happens below the threshold of consciousness

parallel processing

when the conscious and unconscious mind work together

blindsight

damage to visual association areas, so they have no conscious awareness of seeing, but their unconscious mind still receives visual data and they can grasps objects in front of them and navigate around obstacles.

sequential processing

your unconscious mind can only fully devote itself to one task at a time, so for difficult problems or new information you must do each part of the tasks seperately

circadian rhythm

these regulate your regular bodily rhythms, like temperature, hormone levels, and sleep/wake cycles.

consequences of sleep deprivation

acute mental and physical deterioration, memory loss, depression, vulnerabliity to disease, high blood pressure, and worse

sleep theories

conserves energy, keeps you out of harms way, improves mental functioning, plays a restorative function, boosts immune system, releases growth hormones, memory and problem solving, repairing damaged cells, and sweeping out debris

sleep cycle

a period of sleep lasting about 90 minutes and including one or more stages of NREM sleep, followed by REM sleep

alpha waves

dowsy and relaxed

beta waves

awake and alert

NREM 1

theta waves, slowed breathing, hallucinations

hypnic jerks

involuntary twitches or falling sensations while sleeping

NREM 2

Sleep stage characterized by its periodic sleep spindles, or bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity. About half the night is spent in this phase.

sleep spindles

short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep

NREM 3

sleep stage that lasts about 30 minutes and your brain emits large, slow delta waves, and you are hard to awaken.

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

REM (rapid eye movement)

describes sleep in which vivid dreams typically occur; this type of sleep increases as the night progresses while stage 4 sleep decreases

paradoxical sleep

The type of sleep encountered during REM when internally, the brain and body are active; while externally, the body appears calm and inactive

REM rebound effect

a tendency to increase the amount of REM sleep after being deprived of it

Dream theories

Helps bring back memories, periodic brain stimulations, and REM sleep

Freudian dream interpretation

dreams were bascially wish-fulfillment

manifest content

was the censored and symbolic representation

latent content

the weird, messed-up usually sexual stuff your unconscious mind secretly really wants

information processing theory

dreams allow us to prcess the day's events and fix them in our memories, your remember new facts beter after a REM filled night

Activation synthesis model

dreams are accidental side effects of neural activity during REM, the brain's attempt to weave a story out of random sights and emotions