Lecture 8 - Motivation and Affect/ The Self

Motivational processes

• motivational processes answer the question of why we behave in certain ways

• need arousal → tension state → drive to reduce tension

Motivational conflict

• approach goals

  • those with positive attraction

• avoidance goals

  • those we try to avoid

• decisions that combine multiple motives create internal conflict or dissonance

  • how do we make the best choice

approach-approach conflict

• when we are attracted by two desirable alternatives 

• which one is the best?

• can you have both?

• ex. a fast food restaurant

approach-avoidance conflict

• when we are attracted to a goal and want to avoid it at the same time 

• the alternative has both negative consequences 

• how to tip the scale in your favour?

• ex. chocolate pudding

  • positive consequences? it’s yummy

  • negative consequences? It’s unhealthy

  • how does Jell-o help consumers resolve the conflict? they made it fat-free

• ex. buckley’s medicine

  • negative consequence? it tastes awful

  • positive consequence? it will help you feel better

avoidance-avoidance conflict

• when both alternatives are circumstances that we prefer to avoid

• choosing the lesser of two evils 

• life insurance - might not want to think about it or purchase it, but it could be even worse if you do not act

• planning a funeral

Classifying motivations

• many approaches

• often, decisions have multiple motivations 

• Usually the more important the decision, the greater the number of motivational drives at work

Maslow’s hierarchy

physiological (water, sleep, food) →

safety (security, shelter, protection) →

belongingness (love, friendship, acceptance by others) →

ego needs (prestige, status, accomplishment) →

self-actualization (self-fulfillment, enriching experiences)

McGuire’s Motives - Consistency

• the basic desire to have all aspects of oneself consistent with each other

  • includes attitudes, opinions, interests, aspects of personality and behaviour

  • also applies to our expectations about products and services (e.g. there should be consistent quality in P&G products)

McGuire’s Motives - Novelty

• the need to seek variety and difference to avoid boredom

  • however, those who are experiencing rapid change will seek out stability

McGuire’s Motives - Cues

the need for observable cues or symbols that allow us to understand ourselves, others around us, and the general environment

McGuire’s Motives - Modeling

the tendency to base our behaviour on that of others

McGuire’s Motives - Categorizing

the need to categorize and organize information and experiences in a meaningful and manageable way 

McGuire’s Motives - Determination of causation

• the need to know who or what has caused things to happen

  • also concerns how we attribute motivations to others 

McGuire’s Motives - Independence

the need for individuality is more characteristic of Western culture

McGuire’s Motives - Affiliation

the need for mutually satisfying relationships with others, to share and be accepted 

McGuire’s Motives - Reinforcement

we act in certain ways because we are motivated by the expectation of positive consequences

McGuire’s Motives - Assertion

the need to engage in activities of buy products that promote esteem 

McGuire’s Motives - Self-expression

• the need to express one’s identity to others 

  • through words, actions, possessions

McGuire’s Motives - Ego-defense

the need to protect our self-concepts, counter feelings of insecurity, and use defensive behaviours and attitudes when our identity is threatened

Involvement

• perceived relevance/importance of:

  • a product/brand

  • message

  • decision-making/purchase situation

  • involvement can be situational (just for now) or enduring (ongoing)

  • involvement is a continuum that ranges from very low to very high

• also can think of involvement as motivation and the ability to process information

• can be involved emotionally (feeling) and cognitively (thinking)

Self-concept

• the beliefs we have about ourselves (e.g., personality, appearance, abilities) and how we evaluate ourselves on those qualities

• your own attitude toward yourself

The many selves

• actual: where I am now

• ideal: where I want to be

• private: me when no one else is present

• social: me when there are other people present

• independent: me thinking only of myself

• interdependent: me in the context of a relationship

• extended self: we think of our self-concept as ourselves plus possessions 

  • things become important because of nostalgia and use over time

  • souvenirs and peak experiences 

Sex, gender identity and gender expression, and sexual orientation

• Sex is “basically” biological (e.g., male, female, other chromosomal variations and genitalia combinations)

• Gender identity and expression is “generally” the “felt” self (e.g.: man, woman, masculine, feminine, cisgender, gender non-conforming or gender diverse such as transman or transwoman, non-binary, queer and two-spirit)

• sexual orientation addresses partner preference (e.g. LGB or hetrosexual)

  • 2SLGBTQQI+ terminology mixes gender identity and gender expression with sexual orientation

traditional steryotypical gender roles

• Males are agentic 

  • Characterized by concern for self

  • Independent, self-sufficient, self-reliant

• Females are communal

  • Characterized by concern for self and others 

  • Nurturing, compassionate, sympathetic 

Advertising and traditional stereotypical gender roles

• Men respond positively to ads that stress agentic or independent themes

  • They do not respond well to ads with communal or interdependent themes

• Women, however, react favourably to both kinds of themes

Changes in traditional stereotypical gender roles

• What if some women are more agentic than communal?

• What if some men are more communal than agentic?

• Staying with stereotypes, shredding stereotypes, stronger females, more diversity, barbie movie, objectifying or making fun of men, the new man, the best men can be toxic masculinity 

Gender and product positioning

• Despite changes in gender roles, we have many fixed ideas about what products are suitable for males vs females 

  • Pink for boys?

  • What about a man in a pink suit?

  • How about naming our boy Allison, Hilary or Lindsey?

  • A skirt or dress for a man

• Can you shift preferences or adapt to them?

• “Pink” Tax? Gender-based pricing: Just because it’s pink

• Gender Neutral Razors: consumers often pay more for a product that has been altered to appeal to a particular gender (pink razors).

• Gender neutral cosmetics and skin care (the ordinary, ursa major)

• Gender neutral clothing for children

• Gender inclusive dolls

LGBTQ+ consumers

• Tiffany’s use of same-sex couples in its advertising received a positive reception on social media

• For almost all of its products, TD runs ads targeted at same-sex couples 

Avoid “Rainbow Washing”

• More than just changing your packing

• Inclusivity all year round

• Understand intersectionality

Gender Diversity Backlash

• Dylan Mulvaney hired as TikTok transgender influencer in April 2023 - media firestorm and boycotts that persisted. Sales down 28% through the end of 2023.

• Target’s 2023 pride collection moved to the back of some stores. Not all stores carried the line in 2024 

Ideals of beauty

• More variance than stability in our standards of beauty over time

• An output of the cultural production system

• Beauty ideals apply to both male and female appearance 

• Fenty beauty, traditional cultural body paint and piercings,vitiligo models

How do we work on appearance?

• In pursuit of the ideal self

  • Clothing and accessories 

  • Skin care, cosmetics, and hair coloring

  • Dieting

  • Physical fitness regimes

  • Surgery 

• Skincare for men, creams, chemicals and injections, dieting fads (keto, all meat diet, no carb diet, grapefruit diet)

The dark side of beauty and its counterpoint

• Eroded self-esteem

• Body image distortion

• Eating disorders

• Extreme makeovers and surgical reconstruction

• Ozempic, surgical interventions fighting the dark side

• Dove’s classic “Real Beauty” campaign did an excellent job of attempting to redefine Western ideals of beauty

• Crest’s toothpaste line: cinnamon rush, fresh citrus breeze, extreme herbal mist