Biology Final

What does Biology (the study of life) include?

1. Living things are made up of one or more cells
2. Living things reproduce are based on a universal genetic code called DNA
3. respond to their environment, obtain and use energy (Metabolism)
4. Maintain a stable internal environment called homeostasis evolve over time.

What is Qualitative Observations?

It deals with descriptions that cannot be expressed in numbers. (ex. color of dogs)

What is Quantitative Observations?

It uses numbers/measurements of something (ex. \# of dogs)

What is precision?

It is how close yoru measurements are to each other

What is Accuracy?

how close your measurements are to the correct value

What is the independent variable?

what the experimenter will deliberately change or manipulate in the investigation

What is a dependent variable?

what changes in response to the independent variable

What is an observation?

Description of something you can see, smell, touch, touch, hear

What is an inference?

A guess about an object or outcome based on your observations

What is the constant variable?

the aspects of an experiment that are held constant/consistent

What is the experimental group?

Group being tested

What is the control group?

Group used for comparison with experimental group ("Normal Group")

What are macromolecules?

large ORGANIC molecules found in living things

What are the types of macromolecules?

Carbohydrates
Lipids
Protein
Nucleic Acid

What are Monomers?

small, basic unit

What are polymers?

complex structure made of monomers

What consist of Carbohydrates? (4 cals)

Main Function \= short-term ENERGY
Other uses \= structure/support
Found in: sugar and starch (therefore breads, pastas, fruits and veggies)
Made of: C, H, O in a set ratio 1:2:1

What is a monosaccharide?

single sugar molecule
Ex. Glucose (main fuel for cell), Galactose (milk), Fructose (fruit)

What is a polysaccharide?

large molecules formed by monosaccharides.
Ex. Starch (how plants store sugar, grains), Glycogen (how animals store sugar), Cellulose (structural support in plant cell walls)

T/F the FIRST thing you will break down to get energy is carbohydrates

True

What consists of Lipids? (9 cals)

Main Function\= Long-term energy storage
Other uses \= cushioning organs, insulation, hormones, cell membrane
Found in: Fats, oils, phospholipids (in the cell membrane), steroids
Made of: C, H, O
Nonpolar molecules are not soluble in water

What is the monomer of lipids?

fatty acids + glycerol

What is the polymer of lipids?

fats, oils, phospholipids, steroids, hormones

What are saturated fats?

All Single bonds. Straight chain. Solids at room temperature. Stackable.

What are unsaturated fats?

Has at least 1 C\=C double or triple bonds in 1 or more fatty acid tail causing a bend in the chain (liquids at room temperature).

What consists of Phospholipids?

a special lipid
Structure \= 2 fatty acids, a phosphate and a glycerol
These molecules make up the plasma membrane of cells.
The phosphate group is hydrophilic. The fatty acid area is hydrophobic.

What consists of proteins?(4 cals)

Made of \= C, H, O, N
Energy Storage \= 4 cal/mg
Because they have so many other uses though, they are the LAST thing your body will break down if it needs energy.
Most diverse macromolecule
Most abundant macromolecule (makes up 50% of cell's biomass)
They RUN your body!!

What are the functions of proteins?

1. Enzymes control the rate of chemical reactions.
2. Hormones regulate cell processes (ex. Insulin)
3. Used to form bones and muscles (ex. Collagen)
4. Transports substances in & out of cells (ex. Hemoglobin)
5. Antibodies help fight diseases
6. Food source (Ex. Casein in milk)

What is the monomer for proteins?

Amino Acids (20 options)

What is the polymer for proteins?

Polypeptide (amino acids are linked together by a peptide bond)

What makes the 20 amino acids unique from one another?

Their R group! The rest of the molecule stays the same.

What consists of protein structure?

The number and order of amino acids determines the type of protein.
Amino acids interact to give a protein its particular shape.
An incorrect order of amino acids will change a protein's structure and function - that can be bad!
Proteins fold & twist into 3-D shape
Different shapes \= different jobs

Denaturing a protein causes it to unfold and therefore it will not be able to do its job. What can cause a protein to unfold?

High temperature
Wrong pH level
Radiation

What consists of Nucleic Acids? (0 cal)

Main Function: store & transmit hereditary or genetic information Ex. DNA, RNA
Made of: C, H, O, N, and P
DNA- Stores genetic information
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Double Strand
RNA - helps build Proteins
Ribonucleic Acid
Single Strand

What is the structure of Nucleic Acids?

Monomer \= nucleotides
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
Uracil (U)
Polymer \= Nucleic Acid
Ex. DNA and RNA

Energy storage of Nucleic Acids

Nucleotide \= Monomer
Nucleotides are made of a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogen base which can be A, T, C, G, or U.
Energy Storage of Nucleic Acids
0 cal/mg
Nucleic Acids are NEVER broken down for energy!! They don't even store any energy!! However you can extract nucleic acids from certain foods such as liver or bananas.

Building Polymers: Dehydration Reaction

To build a polymer, we must link monomers
Example: 2 monosaccharides (glucose+ fructose) \= 1 disaccharide (sucrose)
Removes a water molecule (gives off water) to bond 2 monosaccharides

Breaking Polymers: Hydrolosis

Opposite of Dehydration Reaction
Breaks big polymers into smaller monomers
Water is added- water forces its way in and breaks bonds

Elements to remember:

Carbohydrate \= CHO \= Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Lipid \= CHO\= Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Protein \= CHON \= Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
Nucleic Acid \= CHONP \= Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus

Chemical reactions include:

Chemical reactions are the breaking and reforming of chemical bonds
Energy is added to break bonds
Energy is released when bonds form

Activation Energy

amount of energy needed to make a chemical reaction start

Products

substances that are changed during a reaction

Reactants (substrate)

substances that are made by a chemical reactions

What do cells consist of:

Cell- the basic unit of life
1. All living things are made of cells 2. Cells are the basic unit of life 3. all cells come from other cells
Unicellular- 1 cell
Multicellular- many cells
There are prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Organelles- specialized structures within the cell that work together to help the cell function

What does Cell Membrane and Cell Transport consist of:

Cell Membrane- (Made of phospholipids\= Phosphate "head", 2 fatty acid chain "tails") (Arranged in a bilayer Polar heads\= hydrophilic I, Nonpolar tails \= hydrophobic)
Cell Membrane Model is called Fluid Mosaic Model
Receptor Proteins detect ligands

What can pass through easily?

Small, non-polar, hydrophobic, neutral molecules and water

What cannot pass through easily?

Polar molecules (must go through proteins) and large molecules

What does Passive Transport include?

No atp,
(High to Low)
Diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated Diffusion

Active transport includes?

Atp needed
Active (Low to High)
Molecular Pumps
Exocytosis
Endocytosis

What are the three types of Diffusion?

1. Diffusion
Normal things
2. Facilitated Diffusion
Down a protein channel
3. Osmosis
Water diffusion
Hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic.

What do Molecular Pumps do?

Facilitated Diffusion with ✨energy✨.

Endocytosis

Cell uses energy to take this IN

Exocytosis

Cell uses energy to take things OUT

What are pathogens?

disease-causing agents

Bacteria structure includes?

Has Cell Wall
Has Cell Membrane
Has Cytoplasm
Has and nucleoid region with 1 circular DNA chromosome and plasmids.
Has Ribosomes
Has a Flagella

What does bacteria use/made-of?

Decomposes matter
In Humans:
Prevent infections
Digests food
Biotechnology
Making antibodies, insulin
Viruses
Not living things
Have genetic material
Depends on host cell to survive

Bacteria involvement?

1.Structure
Capsid \= protein coat on outside
Nucleic Acid core
2.Uses
Treatment of diseases like cancer
Replacement for antibiotics
3. Reproduction
Lytic
Immediately starts
Lysogenic
"Dormant"
4.Prion
Type of protein that can trigger normal proteins in the brain to fold abnormally

Which organelles do you need to know?

Cell Membrane, Phospholipid Bilayer, Cytoplasm, Ribosome, Cytoskeleton, Nucleus, Nucleolus, Rough ER, Smooth ER, Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes, Vacuoles, Centrioles, Centrosomes, Mitochondria, Chloroplast (Plants Only), Central Vacuole (Plants Only), Cell Wall (Plants only), Cilia or Flagella (Animal Cells only).

ATP

an energy-carrying molecule that carries/stores energy for cell functions

Cellular Energy Structure

Nitrogen base (adenine)
Sugar ring (ribose)
3 phosphate groups held together with a high energy bonds

Cellular Energy

A lot of the energy in ATP is stored in the bond between the last two phosphates
Energy is released when a phosphate group is removed (and added to another molecule). When the last phosphate is removed it becomes ADP + a phosphate
Because more energy is given off than required when the third phosphate is removed, this is overall an exothermic reaction

Cellular Energy ADP

ADP becomes ATP when a phosphate group is added
Enzyme ATP Synthase is used to add the third phosphate to ADP to make ATP using energy from the food you eat
ADP is recycled
When making the ADP into ATP, a lot of energy is needed to attach the third phosphate so this is an overall endothermic reaction

Photosynthesis Vocab:

1.ATP - (Adenosine Triphosphate) an energy-carrying molecule that carries/stores energy for cell functions
2.Photosynthesis - the process by which sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide are chemically converted into chemical energy stored in glucose
3.Grana - pancake-like stacks of thylakoid
4.Stroma - fluid-like substance that fills the space between the grana
5.Chlorophyll - a pigment that can absorb sunlight
6.Photosystems - clusters of chlorophyll and proteins that trap energy from the sun; energy is transferred to electrons
7.Electron carriers - molecules that carry electrons in order to pass on their energy
8.Chemosynthesis - the process of an organism making its own food using chemicals
9.Stomata - pores on the underside of the leaf where: plants lose water; carbon dioxide enters and oxygen exits
10. Photorespiration - adds oxygen to the Calvin Cycle

what is the ultimate source of energy?

SUN

The formula for photosynthesis is?

The formula for photosynthesis is 6CO2 + 6H20 -\> C6H1206 +602

What are the two stages of photosynthesis?

1. Light dependent ("photo") reactions requires solar energy. This happens in the thylakoid membrane
2. Light independent ("synthesis") reaction does not require any solar energy. This happens in the stroma

What is the Calvin cycle?

Calvin Cycle
Chemical reactions powered by ATP and NADPH combine hydrogen (from water) with carbon dioxide to form sugar molecules (glucose \= C6H12O6)
Chemosynthesis: the process of an organism making its own food using chemicals (chemo) instead of sunlight (photo) like photosynthesis
The rate of photosynthesis is affected by 3 factors
Light intensity
Amount of CO2
Temperature

Cellular respiration vocab

Cellular Respiration - connects the chemical energy in food (glucose) to chemical energy stored in ATP
Inner Membrane/Cristae - folded membranes
Matrix - fluid-like substance that fills the space
Aerobic - living, occurring, or acting only in the presence of oxygen
Anaerobic - living, occurring, or acting in the absence of oxygen
Fermentation - an anaerobic process in which energy is released from glucose

What is the reaction for cellular respiration

C6H12 + 6O2 \---\> 6H2O + 6CO2 + Energy (ATP)

Gycolysis

the breakdown of glucose
Purpose: Splits the 6-carbon molecule of glucose in half to form 2 3-carbon molecules called pyruvate
Occurs in the cytoplasm; anaerobic (needs no O2)

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

Location \= Mitochondria Matrix
Process \= 2 pyruvate molecules from glycolysis are chemically converted to make 2 ATP (+ some NADH and FADH2)
Releases CO2 as waste

What does the Electron Transport Chain do?

Location \= inner membrane (cristae) of mitochondria
Process \=
Reactions using e\--- + hydrogens formed in Krebs Cycle
Enzyme ATP Synthase helps assemble ATP
Makes 34 ATP + H2O (hydrogen bonds to oxygen)
Most ATP is from this step
Electron Transport Chain \= (oxidative phosphorylation + Chemiosmosis)
Chemiosmosis combines electron transport to ATP synthesis

What is anaerobic respiration?

fermentation when oxygen is not present

What are the 2 types of fermentation?

1. Lactic Acid Fermentation
Occurs in some bacteria and animal cells
Pyruvate from glycolysis is converted into lactic acid and 2 ATP
2. Alcohol Fermentation
Occurs in yeast when oxygen is not available
Pyruvate from glycolysis is broken into alcohol, CO2 and 2 ATP

What is the total ATP Produced out of cellular respiration?

Aerobic Respiration \= 36-38 ATP
2 from Glycolysis
2 from Krebs Cycle
34 from Electron Transport
Anaerobic Respiration \= 2-4 ATP

What are the two purposes of the Cell cycle?

Growth and repair

What are the purposes for?

Interphase:cell growth
Gap 1- The cell grows, the normal functions of the cell continue, and organelles are replicated in the cell
Synthesis- DNA synthesis (DNA replication)
Gap 2- additional growth of the cell

What is Mitosis?

division of the nucleus

What is Cytokinesis?

cell division which begins at the end of mitosis.

What are the four parts in Mitosis? (PMAT)

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.

What happens in each step?

Prophase- Chromatin condenses into tightly coiled chromosomes.
Metaphase- the Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.
Anaphase- sister chromatids separate from each other.
Telophase- a complete set of identical chromosomes are at each pole of the cell.

What are the 23rd pair of chromosomes ?

sex chromosomes

​​How many autosomes do somatic cells have?

22 pairs or 44

In which phase of meiosis sister chromatids are still attached and line up across the middle of the cell?

Metaphase 2

What type of chromosomes are X and Y?

sex chromosomes

A cell containing 20 chromosomes undergoes MEIOSIS. What is the end result?

4 daughter cells each containing 10 chromosomes

Regulation of the Cell cyle vocab:

Cell differentiation: a process that creates special structures and functions
Stem Cell: cell that can become differentiated
Daughter cell: two identical cells that form when a cell divides
Chromatid: one half of a duplicated chromosome
Chromosome: one long continuous chain of DNA that consists of numerous genes and regulatory information
Sister chromatid: two identical chromatids
Centromere: region of the condensed chromosome that looks pinched
Telomere: ends of the DNA molecule
Histone: type of protein that is found in chromosomes
Chromatin: mixture of DNA and proteins that coil to form chromosomes
Centrioles: small organelles
Spindle fibers: fibers that attach to the centromeres and guide chromosomes through the stages of mitosis
Cleavage furrow/Cell plate: the indentation of the cell's surface that divides the cell into two identical daughter cells
Surface area to volume ratio: when a cell grows, if the ratio is small than the cell is big, if the ratio is big than the cell is smaller
Prophase II: chromosomes condense, nuclear envelope breaks down, spindle fibers form between the centrosomes, and the fibers capture the chromosomes
Metaphase II: The nucleus from the parent cell separates
Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate
Telophase II: nuclear membranes form around both chromosomes
Crossing over- exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis
Mitotic phase- stage of the cell cycle when the cell is actually dividing
Fertilization- fusion of a sperm and egg cell nuclei
Gametes- term given to sex cells such as eggs and sperm
Tetrad- matched up homologous chromosomes pairs
Tumors- Uncontrolled cell growth forms masses of cells
Carcinogens- Substances like UV rays that have been proven to cause cancer
Meiosis- type of cell division that produces sex cells
Diploid- Cells which have pairs of homologous chromosomes
Haploid- Cells that have a single set of unpaired chromosomes
Gametogenesis- The formation of gametes
Benign Cancer- Does not spread and is not harmful to the body
Malignant Cancer- uncontrollable growth and can invade tissue or organs
Metastasize-the spreading of cancer in other areas of the body
Binary Fission- asexual reproduction where a parent cell divides
Cell plate- structure that forms in plant cells during telophase
Karyotype- display of an individual's chromosomes
Asexual- type of reproduction involving only one parent
Zygote- fertilized egg or first cell of a new offspring
Apoptosis- causes the cells that create our webbed fingers while a fetus to die
Homologous- pair of chromosomes that carry the same sequence of genes
Haploid- cells that contain a single set of chromosomes or one from each homologous pair
diploid-cells that contain two sets of homologous chromosomes

What is Ecology?

the study of relationships between organisms and their environment

What are the levels of organization?

-Organism
- Population
- Community
- Ecosystem
- Biome
- Biosphere

What is Biodiversity

the variety of organisms considered at all levels.

What is Taxonomy?

the study of describing, naming and classifying organisms.

What is Biogeochemical cycles?

represent the movement of a particular form of matter through the living and nonliving parts of an ecosystem.

What is succession?

The process of ecological change in an ecosystem where one community is replaced by another community.

What consists of the water cycle?

Precipitation: water falls to the Earth as liquid
Infiltration: some water seeps underground
Runoff: Liquid water that isn't infiltrated runs along the surface and collects in bodies of water.
Evaporation: sun heats liquid water to vapor and it rises to the atmosphere.
Transpiration: water rises back to the atmosphere as water vapor from plants.
Condensation: water vapor condenses from clouds.

What consists of the carbon cycle?

-Photosynthesis
- Cellular respiration
Consumption: One Organism eats another form of carbon.
Decomposition:decomposers break down carbon from dead organisms, recycling it in the soil.
Fossilization: converts carbon from once living organisms into fossil fuels.
Combustion: CO2 is released into the atmosphere by burning.

What consists of the Nitrogen cycle?

-Found in: Proteins, Nucleic Acids fossil fuels, waste, and soil.
Consumption:one organism eats another and obtains the nitrogen in it.
Decomposition: decomposers, like bacteria, break down dead matter, returning nitrogen to the soil.
Ammonification:Bacteria convert nitrogen from waste (urine and feces) into ammonia.
Nitrification: Bacteria convert nitrogen in ammonia into nitrates and nitrites to be absorbed by plants in their roots.
Denitrification: bacteria convert nitrogen in ammonia to N2 so it can go back into the atmosphere.

What are four types of consumers?

Herbivores
Eat only vegetation
Carnivores
Eat only meat
Omnivores
Eat meat and vegetation
Detritivores (decomposers)
Eat dead materials

What is a habitat?

the actual area in the ecosystem where an organism lives, including all of its abiotic and biotic resources.

What is a niche?

all of the things an organism needs and does within its habitat.

What is the Keystone species?

a species that holds the ecosystem together; it is critical for the survival of the other species in the ecosystem.