Top 100 Terms: Psychology

Absolute Threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

Accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

Altered States of Consciousness

forms of experience that depart from the normal subjective experience of the world and the mind

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Anorexia Nervosa (AN)

A disorder with both psychologic and physiologic components that begins with dieting to lose weight and manifests into an inappropriate self-control behavior; continued restrictive eating may lead to starvation and eventually death.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

A personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.

Anxeity

a feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, typically about an imminent event or something with an uncertain outcome.

Anxiety Disorders

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Associationism (Aristotle)

A group of theories related to connecting stimulus and response. These theories are often referred to as S-R theories. An individual is conditioned by stimuli which are 'connected' or 'bonded' to appropriate responses

Attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

Attitude Change

Attitude is a person's general evaluation of an object - Attitude Change involves changing the way a person thinks about something - Behavior change is changed through an attitude change

Attitudes and Behavior

A belief and a feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events;manner of acting or conducting yourself

Attribution Theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Avoidance Learning

an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring

Behavior Genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Binocular Cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

Bipolar Disorder

A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania.

Brain Plasticity (Neuroplasticity)

The brain's ability to rearrange the connections between neurons due to learning or experience

Bulimia Nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

Bystander Effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Case Study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Central Nervous System

consists of the brain and spinal cord

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Cerebral Cortex and Lobes

frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe

Cerebral Hemispheres

the two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain

Childhood Characteristics

the study of the psychological characteristics of infants and children and the application of general psychological principles to infancy and childhood

Classical Conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Client Centered Therapy

A humanistic therapy based on Carl Roger's beliefs that an individual has an unlimited capacity for psychological growth and will continue to grow unless barriers are placed in the way.

Cognitions

mental processes, such as thinking, memory, sensation, and perception

Cognitive Development (Piaget)

Sensorimotor-explores through the senses, gains object permanence
Preoperational-can't see other people's point of view (egocentrism)
Concrete operational-concept of conservation, logical thinking
Formal operational-adult reasoning develops, abstract thinking, metacognition (thinking about thinking)

Cognitive Development (Piaget)

Sensorimotor-explores through the senses, gains object permanence
Preoperational-can't see other people's point of view (egocentrism)
Concrete operational-concept of conservation, logical thinking
Formal operational-adult reasoning develops, abstract thinking, metacognition (thinking about thinking)

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

Cognitive Therapy

a treatment method designed to identify and correct distorted thinking patterns that can lead to feelings and behaviors that may be troublesome, self-defeating, or self-destructive

Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Conditioned Reflex

A simple relation between a specific conditioned stimulus and a conditioned involuntary response.

Conditioned Stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Confirmation Bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Conformity and Obedience

Behavior is contagious, molded by one and followed by another, an expression of compliance (obedience).

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Contrast

The state of being noticeably different from something else when put or considered together.

Control Group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Corpus Callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Correlational Method

a research procedure used to determine how much events or characteristics vary along with each other

Defense Mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

Dendrite

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

A double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins.

Depression

A prolonged feeling of helplessness, hopelessness, and sadness

Depth Perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

Determinism

the philosophy that holds that every event, action, and decision results from something independent of the human will

Developmental Stages

Periods of life initiated by significant transitions or changes in physical or psychological functioning.

Discriminating Variable

Used in discriminant function analysis to determine between two or more naturally occurring groups.

Dissociative Disorders

disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings

Distance Cues

Cues which aid three-dimensional perception that is essential for the ability of a person to judge quickly and accurately the speed and distance relationships between an object and the individual.

Double Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

DSM

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

Empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Etiology

the study of the causes of diseases

Evolution and Functionalism

a process in which something passes by degrees to a different stage (especially a more advanced or mature stage); a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function \-- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Experimental Method

A method of investigation used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships by purposely manipulating one factor thought to produce change in another factor.

Extinction (operant conditioning)

decreases in the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced

Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus)

Describes how the ability of the brain to retain information decreases in time.

Free Association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

Free Recall

learning procedure in which material that has been learned may be repeated in any order

Frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

Freud stages of Personality development

1) Oral Stage: Weaning
2) Anal Stage: toilet training
3) Phallic Stage: oedipus conflict
4) Latency Stage: earlier conflicts hide under surface
5) Genital Stage: find marital partner, earlier conflicts reappear.

Gestalt Principles of Organization

The organizing principles of perception proposed by the Gestalt psychologists. These principles include the laws of proximity, similarity, closure, continuation, and common fate.

Gestalt Psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

Hibituation

is the tendency for infants (and adults) to stop paying attention to stimulus that does not change

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Humanistic Psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Hypothesis Testing

a decision-making process for evaluating claims about a population

ID

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

Id, Ego, Superego (Freud)

according to Freud, the three interrelated parts that make up the mind: the id consists of basic inborn drives that are the source of instinctive psychic energy; the ego is the realistic aspect of the mind that balances the forces of the id and the superego; the superego has two components (the conscience and the ego-ideal) and represents the internalized demands of society

Illusory Correlation

perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists

Independent vs. Dependent Variables

An independent variable is the variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment to test the effects on the dependent variable. A dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in a scientific experiment.

Infant-Mother Attachment

the way that an infant reacts when the mother leaves the room and then returns later

Information - Processing Approach

approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information

Instrumental Behavior

An activity that occurs because it is effective in producing a particular consequence or reinforcer

Intelligence

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ \= (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Rewards

Intrinsic rewards include things such as: personal achievement, professional growth, sense of pleasure and accomplishment. Extrinsic motivation is based on tangible rewards, is external to the individual and is typically offered by a supervisor or manager.

Introversion vs. Extroversion

extent to which people are outgoing or shy

Just Noticable Difference Threshold

the smallest difference between two stimuli that is detectable 50 percent of the time

Law of Effect (Edward Thorndike)

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Limbic System

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives