BioPsych 1 (copy)

Dendrites

Branch-like structures on a neuron that receive signals from other neurons and transmit them towards the cell body.

Soma (Cell Body)

The main part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and other cellular organelles. It integrates incoming signals from dendrites and generates electrical impulses to transmit information along the axon.

Axon

Long fiber that transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body of a neuron.

Synapse

A junction where two neurons communicate, allowing the transmission of electrical or chemical signals between them.

Types of neurons : Anaxonic

A neuron where no axons are able to be differentiated from the dendrites

Most Critical Ions in Neuron Communication

Sodium (Na+)

Potassium (K+)

Chloride (Cl-)

Calcium (Ca+)

Ions outside the Cell at Rest

Chloride (Cl-) and Sodium(Na+) more positive outside the cell at rest

Resting Membrane Potential RMP

-70 mV

Ions mostly inside the cell at rest

Potassium (K+) and Negatively charged Anions

2 Forces that contribute to RMP

Diffusion (Osmotic Pressure)

and

Electrostatic Pressure

Osmotic Pressure (Diffusion)

Causes ions to spread TOWARDS A UNIFORM CONCENTRATION(The same) along a concentration gradient

high to low

Electrostatic Pressure

Causes Ions to flow towards oppositely charged areas.

Threshold Potential

A specific membrane polarity that opens voltage-gated ion channels.

Action Potential

-Disproportionally large depolarization

Threshold of Excitement

a level above which any stimulation produces a massive depolarization

All or None Property

all action potentials are all or none

Graded Potentials

not an all-or-none polarity change like an action potential but has levels of strength that can ultimately influence the production of an action potential.

Where and How is Action Potential Created at

Axon Hillock or Axon Initial Segment (AIS)

This is an area that contains a high density of ion channels

Depolarization

The Neuron membrane becomes less polarized (more positive)

-Caused by Na+ ions entering inside the neuron

Hyperpolarization

Neuron becomes more polarized (more negative than at RMP)

Absolute Refractory Period

1-2 ms during action potential when no other action potentials can be produced

Relative Refractory period

short time where the neuron membrane is hyperpolarized

(more negative than at resting potential)

Difficult but not impossible to create another action potential (but will need powerful stimulation)

Sodium Potassium Pump

After an Action Potential Na+ and K+ must be pumped against the gradient back to their original location

Uses ATP

Pumps out 3 Na+ for every 2 K+ it pulls in (pulling against the gradient)

Saltatory Conduction

jumping of action potentials from node to node

increasing the speed of the action potential propagating down the axon.

Synapse

a site of functional contact between two neurons where an electrical impulse is transmitted from one to another neuron.

Synaptic Cleft

the space between neurons at the nerve synapse across which a nerve impulse is transmitted by neurotransmitters.

Steps of Neurotransmission #1

Synthesis

Synthesis

Neurons synthesize neurotransmitters and other chemicals from

substances provided by the diet

Steps of Neurotransmission #2

Storage and Transport

Storage and Transport

Some neurotransmitters are packaged in vesicles (tiny spherical packets) in the cell body and transported down the axon through the axoplasmic transport.

• Some neurotransmitters are packaged in the pre-synaptic terminal.

•Either way, the vesicles are then ready in the terminal for when an a.p. comes

Steps of Neurotransmission #3&4

Action Potential and Release

Action Potential and Release

• When the action potential reaches the
  axon terminals, it causes voltage-gated
  Ca++ channels to open

• The neurotransmitter is released from the presynaptic terminal into the synaptic cleft.

• Most individual neurons release at least two or more different kinds of neurotransmitters.

Exocytosis

The release of neurotransmitters when a vesicle fuses with the membrane of a terminal bouton. This process is initiated by Ca++ voltage gated channel

steps of Neurotransmission #5

Binding to Receptors

transmitter is attracted to receptor site

When a transmitter occupies a receptor, it is briefly attached by binding –changes the neuron, making it more or less likely to fire

Types of Postsynaptic Receptors

ionotropic receptor

• A receptor connected directly

to an ion channel (Fast acting)

metabotropic

Receptor that affects an ion channel through a second messenger system (Slower acting)

(More common than ionotropic receptor)

What happens after Receptor Binding?

Changes in electrical potential of cell!

Different receptors are coupled to different ion channels. So,

the type of ion channel determines whether that cell is now more

likely (excitatory response) or less likely (inhibitory response) to

fire an action potential.

Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

Increases the likelihood that a postsynaptic neuron will release a signal

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

Decrease the likelihood that a postsynaptic neuron will send a signal

Acetylcholine

-Common excitatory neurotransmitter

-Found throughout the body

affects muscles

Glutamate

Most common excitatory Neurotransmitter

Plays many roles in Learning and Memory

GABA, Gamma-aminobutyric acid

Most common inhibitory neurotransmitter.

• Opens Cl– channels for the influx of Cl– to hyperpolarize

• Alcohol and benzodiazepine are

agonists.

Monaoamines

Class of neurotransmitters derived from single amino acids

• Monoamines = Dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine,

serotonin

Dopamine

Excitatory and Inhibitory

• Many psychological roles: Motivation, smooth motor movement,

attention, addiction.

• Agonists: cocaine, amphetamine

• Antagonists: Antipsychotics

Norepinephrine (NE) and Epinephrine (E)

Both are excitatory

norepinephrine is more common in the CNS

• Arousal, attention, mood, fight or flight

epinephrine is more common in the PNS

• Arousal, sympathetic nervous system activity, fight or fligh

Serotonin

Excitatory and inhibitory

• Mood, sleep, hunger, and pain

• Agonist: Serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), Hallucinogens

Agonist

HELP a neurotransmitter do its job

Antagonist

HINDER a neurotransmitter from doing its job

Basic Form of DNA

Double Helix

Basic Function of DNA

code for proteins

Allele

two forms of the same gene

one from each parent

Genotype

allele formation

ex: Ee, EE, ee

Phenotype

Physical representation of a gene

How Does PKU demonstrate Nature vs. Nurture?

if someone has the genetic disorder of PKU, “nature” is setting the stage for mental disabilities and a shortened life. Nurture, however, can change the course of PKU dramatically.

Epigenetics

study of how experiences and behaviors influence the expression of genes

Epigenetics influence on gene expression

Methyl Groups: molecules that tag DNA transcription (can cause DNA to wound too tight)

Acetyl Groups: Can loosen DNA and allow for transcription

Licking Mouse pups

poorly nurtured and anxious adult rat can be made to be less stressed by injecting a drug that removes methyl groups,

a well-groomed, calm rat can be made anxious by injecting methionine that adds methyl groups

Heritability

Statistic looking at the proportion of variation that is due to genetics or the environment

Describe significant contributions to neuroscience in ancient Egypt and Greece, during the Renaissance, during the Age of Enlightenment, and in the 1800s through the early 1900s. Who were some of the significant thinkers during these times?

Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus (text)-Dated to 1700 BC, Egyptian text-First recorded writing about the brain-Egyptians thought the brain was less important than other organs.-Greeks started seeing the importance of the brainTrepanation• First attempt at brain surgery• Boring holes in the head• Relieve pressure, drain pus, or let out evil spiritsRenaissance-Artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo began depicting the brain and nervous system in art.-Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)created detailed anatomy booksAge of Enlightenment-René Descartes (1596-1650)-The nervous system worked like a machine-dualism: The mind and brain are separate-monism: The mind is what the brain does. They are one.1800s-1900s-Time of great advancements in research methods, theories, and staining techniques-Charles Darwin-Wilhelm Wundt - father of modern psychology-Santiago Ramón y Cajal - father of modern neuroscience

Describe the historical connection between artists and neuroanatomy by providing some examples.

-Artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo began depicting the brain and nervous system in art.-Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)created detailed anatomy books

Explain the difference between dualism and monism. Which of these philosophies is the way we address neuroscience today, and why?

-dualism: The mind and brain are separate-monism: The mind is what the brain does. They are oneMost researchers today are in favor of monism since it's accepted that the mind is a function of the brain's processes

Describe the difference between an applied approach and basic approach to neuroscience.

applied approach-focus on creating solutions or remedies for problems-Creating psychoactive drugs-Clinical psychologybasic approach-Discovery-Theory building-Understanding fundamental principles

Diagram and label a typical neuron (standard multipolar neuron)

Dendrite, cell body, axon, axon terminal

Dendrites

structure of neuron- receive information from other neurons and send electrical information to the cell body

cell body (soma)

structure of neuron- the region where inputs are integrated

Axon (nerve fiber)

structure of neuron- conducts output information away from the cell body as an electrical impulse. and action potentials are propagated along the length of axons and are the electrical signal that carries information from one place to another in the nervous system

axon hillock

structure of neuron- place where electrical signal is initiated

Axon terminals

structure of neuron- at the end of the axon, they release chemicals to communicate with other cells

synapse

structure of neuron- place where one neuron communicates with another

Cell membrane and ion channels

structure of neuron- Ion channels are large proteins in the cell membrane of neurons that selectively permit the flow of specific ions into and out of a neuron

Diagram types of neurons and how they differ from each other.

multipolar, bipolar, unipolar

Diagram the different lobes of the cerebral cortex

frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe.

Astrocytes

glial cellcentral nervous systemnutrientsRepairhelp in signalsprotect the blood-brain barrier

Microglia

glial cellCNSimmune functionremoval of dead neurons

Oligodendrocytes

glial cellCNScreates myelin for axonsaids in development

Schwann cells

glial cells in the peripheral nervous systemcreates myelin for neurons in PNScreates pathway for regrowing axons after injury

Use orientation language to describe how one anatomical structure relates in space to other structures.

- Coronal plane—divides the brain into front (anterior) and back (posterior) regions- Sagittal plane—bisects the brain into right and left halves (going out toward your ears is a lateral direction and going from your ears toward the center is a medial direction)- Horizontal plane—divides the brain into above (superior) and below (inferior) partdorsal- towards backventral-towards front/belly

Describe different areas of the brain using directional terms like dorsal, ventral, anterior, and posterior.

The top of the head (and brain) is dorsal, and the bottom is ventral. The front of the brain toward your forehead is anterior, and toward the back of your head is posterior.

Be able to identify the three different planes (cuts) of the brain.

Horizontal, Sagittal, Coronal

Describe the basic divisions of the nervous system.

-central nervous system (CNS):Brain and spinal cord-Peripheral nervous system (PNS): Nerves outside the CNS throughout the bodyPNS has 2 divisions: Somatic and Autonomic (see other flashcards)

Peripheral nervous system (PNS): Somatic Division

Spinal nerves (31 pairs) connect to the spinal cord• The nerves of the somatic nervous system form two anatomical groups:• Cranial nerves (12) innervate the head, neck, and visceral organs directly from the brain

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) : Autonomic Division

the main system for controlling the body's organs.The ANS has two divisions:• Sympathetic nervous system• prepares the body for action—the"fight-or-flight" response.• Parsympathetic nervous system• helps the body relax and recuperate. ("rest & digest")The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervoussystems have different effects on organs due todifferent neurotransmitters.

Diagram and label the basic anatomy of the spinal cord.

The nerves of the somatic nervous system form two anatomical groups:• Cranial nerves (12) innervate the head, neck, and visceral organs directly from the brain

Be able to identify the different layers of the meninges.

-dura mater: thick outer meninges layer against the skull-pia mater: thin membrane following the contours of the cerebral cortex-arachnoid:web-like membrane between the dura and pia matercontains CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) and blood vessels

Be able to identify the different ventricles in the brain and the function of the cerebral spinal fluid.

Cerebral spinal fluid (CSF): clear liquid made by the choroid plexusFound in ventriclesRemoves wasteAlso found in the spinal cord and around the brain-VentriclesSpaces within the brainTwo lateral ventriclesThird ventricleFourth ventricle

Describe the five major embryological divisions of the brain

Telencephalon---limbic system emotions, learning, motivation, sexual behavior--basal gangliacoordinated smooth muscle movement motivation--cerebral cortex (see other flashcard)Diencephalon-Mesencephalon-Cerebellum (Metencephalon)-Means "little brain"Motor control, balance, coordination, learning, and memoryPons (Metencephalon)-Sleep, arousal, breathing, eye movements, and facial expressionsMedulla (Myelencephalon)-Breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, vomiting

Telencephalon parts(know functions, see other flashcards)

limbic system, basal ganglia, and cerebral cortex

Limbic system functions and what it is a part of

Part of Telencephalonemotions, learning, motivation, sexual behavior,amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate cortex, fornix, septumhalamus• relay for sensory information

Basal ganglia functions and what it is a part of

Part of Telencephaloncoordinated smooth muscle-movement-motivationstriatum-caudate-putamenglobus pallidusnucleus accumbens

Cerebral cortex functions and what it is a part of

Part of Telencephalonfrontal lobe: decision making, motivation, attention, higher cognitive reasoningparietal lobe: integration of sensoryinformationoccipital lobe: visual processingtemporal lobe: language, visual andauditory perception

Diencephalon functions and parts

thalamus- relay for sensory informationhypothalamusHormone regulation and homeostasis, Sex, development, hunger, temperature, water, sleepRelay for sensory informationpituitary glandHormone regulation,mammillary bodies: connect tothalamus and plays a role in memory

Mesencephalon parts and functions

Tectumsuperior colliculuseye tracking and visual reflexesInferior colliculusauditory reflexesTegmentumperiaqueductal gray (PAG)Receives information from amygdala about fearAffects pain perceptionSubstantia nigraSends tracts to striatum for smooth muscle movementUses the neurotransmitter dopamineventral tegmentum or ventral tegmental area (VTA)Sends projections to cortex and nucleus accumbensImportant in motivation and addiction

Cerebellum functions and what it is a part of

Part of MetencephalonMeans "little brain"Motor control, balance, coordination, learning, and memory

Pons functions and what it is a part of

Part of MetencephalonSleep, arousal, breathing, eye movements, and facial expressions

Medulla functions and what it is a part of

part of MyelencephalonBreathing, heart rate, blood pressure, vomiting

reticular formation functions and what it is a part of

MyelencephalonPart of Arousal, sleep, and attention, respiration, heart rate

Label the four lobes of the cerebral cortex and be able to discuss each lobe's basic function.

-frontal lobe: decision making, motivation, attention, higher cognitive reasoning-parietal lobe: integration of sensory information-occipital lobe: visual processing-temporal lobe: language, visual and auditory perception

Describe the functions of the basal ganglia and identify its major structures.

coordinated smooth muscle movement, motivation-striatum:caudateputamenglobus pallidusnucleus accumbens

List the five stages of the scientific method and give examples of what happens at each stage.

1. empiricismAll knowledge comes from our sensesof the natural world.Begins with observation2. hypothesisStatement of prediction of howsomething in nature worksComes from empirical observationIs testable3. experimentationIndependent variable (the manipulation)• Dependent variable (the measurement)• Control groups• Quantification and statistics4. theory• Use the results to create or modify theories• Good theories create new questions5. replication• Repeat experiment• Conducts meta-analysis of similar research

Describe the difference between a hypothesis and a theory.

hypothesis• Statement of prediction of how something in nature works• Comes from empirical observation• Is testabletheory• Use the results to create or modify theories• Good theories create new questions

Provide reasons why animals are used in research in psychology and neuroscience.

Fundamental principles of genetics, physiology, learning, and neuroscience are similar across species of animals• The underlying mechanisms of behavior are similar across species and often easier to study in nonhuman species• We are interested in animals for their own sake.• What we learn about animals sheds light on human evolution.• Some experiments cannot use humans because of legal or ethical reasons.