AP Gov Terms

Linkage Institutions

The channels through which people’s concerns become political issues on the government’s policy agenda. In the United States: elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media.

Participatory Democracy

A theory of democracy that holds that citizens should actively and directly control all aspects of their lives.

Pluralist Democracy

A theory of democracy that holds that citizen membership in groups is the key to political power.

Elite Democracy

A political system in which the privileged class holds the power to make policies.

Limited Government

The idea that certain restrictions should be placed on government to protect the natural rights of citizens.

Natural Rights

Rights inherent in human beings, not dependent on governments: life, liberty, and property.

Popular Sovereignty

A belief that ultimate power resides in the people.

Republicanism

A philosophy of limited government with elected representatives serving at the will of the people. The government is based on consent of the governed.

Social Contract

An agreement between the people and their government signifying their consent to be governed.

Shay’s Rebellion

A 1787 rebellion in which ex-Revolutionary War soldiers attempted to prevent foreclosures on farms as a result of high interest rates and taxes. Showed the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

Faction

A small, organized, dissenting group within a larger one. Especially in politics.

Great Compromise

1787; this compromise was between the large and small states of the colonies. Resolved that there would be representation by population in the House of Representatives, and equal representation would exist in the Senate. Each state, regardless of size, would have 2 senators. All tax bills and revenues would originate in the House. This combined the needs of both large and small states and formed a fair and sensible resolution to their problems.

Three-Fifths Compromise

Representation in the House and taxation were to be based on the “number of free persons” in a state plus three-fifths of the number of “all other persons”.

Electoral College

The body of electors who formally elect the United States president and vice-president.

Separation of Powers

The division of power among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.

Checks and Balances

A system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches in order to prevent abuse of power.

Ratification

Formal approval, final consent to the effectiveness of a constitution, constitutional amendment, or treaty.

Amendment Process

The way in which changes are added to the Constitution.

Phase 1: Congress can propose and amendment by 2/3 vote in each house OR a National Convention can propose an amendment requested by 2/3 of the states.

Phase 2: State Conventions can ratify an amendment by a vote of 3/4 of the states OR state legislatures can ratify an amendment by a vote of 3/4 of the states.

Federalism

The sharing of power between federal and state government.

Supremacy Clause

Article VI of the Constitution, which makes the Constitution, national laws, and treaties supreme over state laws when the national government is acting within its constitutional limits.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Clause of the Constitution (Article I, Section VIII, Clause III) setting forth the implied powers of Congress. It states that Congress, in addition to its express powers, has the right to make all laws necessary and proper to carry out all powers the Constitution vests in the national government. Sometimes referred to as the Elastic Clause.

Enumerated Powers

Powers specifically given to Congress in the Constitution; including the power to collect taxes, coin money, regulate foreign and interstate commerce, and declare war.

Implied Powers

Powers inferred from the express powers that allow Congress to carry out its functions.

Commerce Clause

The clause in the Constitution (Article I, Section VIII, Clause I) That gives Congress the power to regulate all business activities that cross state lines or affect more than one state or other nations.

Concurrent Powers

Powers held jointly by the national and state governments.

Categorical Grants

Federal grants that can be used only for specific purposes, or “categories” of state and local spending. They come with strings attached, such as nondiscrimination provisions.

Block Grants

Federal grants given to states or communities to support broad programs in areas such as community development and social services.

Mandates

Terms set by the national government that states must meet whether or not they accept federal grants.

Tenth Amendment

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.

US Senate

One house of the US Congress

* Two delegates per state: 100 total members
* Six year terms
* Allowed filibusters

US House of Representatives

One house of the US Congress

* Delegates based on population in each state: 435 total members
* Two year terms
* Must initiate all revenue bills

Bicameral Legislature

A law making body made of two houses. Ex: Congress is made up of two houses.

Incumbents

Those already holding office. In congressional elections, they usually win.

Congressional Caucuses (Coalitions)

A closed meeting of a political or legislative group to choose candidates for office or to decide issues of policy.

Congressional Committees

* Control the congressional agenda and guide legislation from its introduction, to its sendoff, to the president for his signature.
* Regularly hold hearings to investigate problems and possible wrongdoing and to oversee the executive branch.

Speaker of the House

An office mandated by the Constitution. Chosen by the majority party.

* Most important leader in the House of Representatives
* Presides over the House when in session
* Plays major role in committee assignments
* Has substantial control over assigning bills to committees

President of the Senate

The other role of the Vice President of the United States

Majority Leader

The legislative leader elected by party members holding the majority of seats in the House or Senate

* Responsible for scheduling bills and rounding up votes on behalf of a party’s position.
* Schedules bills, influences committee assignment

Minority Leader

The principal leader of the minority party in the House of Representatives or the Senate.

Whips

Party leaders who work with the majority or minority leader to count votes beforehand and lean on waverers whose votes are crucial to a bill favored by the party.

Filibuster

A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator refuses to relinquish the floor and thereby delays proceedings and prevents a vote on a controversial issue.

Cloture

A procedure for terminating debate, especially filibusters, in the Senate.

Unanimous Consent

An agreement by every senator to the terms of debate on a given piece of legislation.

Holds

A procedure allowing one or more Senators to prevent a motion from reaching the floor

House Rules Committee

The committee in the House of Representatives that reviews most bills coming from a House committee before they go to the full House.

* Schedules bills for the full House.

Discharge Petition

Petition that, if signed by majority of the House of Representatives members, will pry a bill from the committee and bring it to the floor for consideration.

Pork Barrel Legislation

Federal projects, grants, and contracts available to state and local governments, businesses, colleges, and other institutions in a congressional district.

* Designed to please voters and help win votes for elected officials.

Logrolling

An agreement by two or more lawmakers to support each other’s bills.

Trustee

A legislator who uses their best judgement to make policy in the interests of the people they represent.

Delegate

A legislator who makes decisions mirroring the preferences of their constituents.

Politico

A legislator who adopts both trustee and instructed delegate roles as they strive to be both representatives and policymakers.

Veto

The constitutional power of the president to sent a bill back to Congress with reasons for rejecting it. Can be overridden with a 2/3 vote of both houses of Congress.

Pocket Veto

A type of veto occurring when Congress adjourns within 10 days of submitting a bill to the president and the president simply lets the bill die by neither signing nor vetoing it.

Commander in Chief

Represents the president’s role in leading the armed forces.

Executive Order

A policy issued by the president that has the force of law.

Signing Statements

A formal document that explains why a president is signing a particular bill into law. May contain objections to the bill and promises not to implement key sections.

Senate Confirmation

The process outlined in Article II of the Constitution, giving the Senate the authority to approve appointments made by the president.

22nd Amendment

1951, the amendment that limits presidents to two terms of office.

“Lame Duck Period”

Time after a new president is elected, but has not been inaugurated yet.

Cabinet

Advisory council for the president consisting of the heads of the executive departments, the vice president, and a few other officials selected by the president.

Presidential Coattails

Occur when voters cast their ballots for congressional candidates of the president's party because they support the president. Recent studies show that few races are won this way.

Treaty Ratification

The power of the US Senate to approve or disapprove formal treaties negotiated by the president on behalf of the nation.

Executive Agreements

Formal international agreements entered into by the president that do not require the advice and consent of the US Senate.

Constitutional Powers of the President

From Article II of the Constitution

* Serve as commander in chief of the armed forces
* Commission officers of the armed forces
* Grant reprieves and pardons for federal offenses (except impeachment)
* Convene Congress in special sessions
* Receive ambassadors
* Take care that the laws are faithfully executed
* Wield the “executive power”
* Appoint officials to lesser offices

Discretionary Spending

Federal spending on programs that are controlled through the regular budget process.

Mandatory Spending

Federal spending required by law that continues without the need for annual approvals by Congress.

Entitlements

Policies for which Congress has obligated itself to pay a certain level of benefits to a certain number of recipients. Social Security benefits are an example.

Budget Deficit

A situation in which the government spends more than it takes in.

Government Shutdown

The closure of nonessential offices of the government due to lack of approval on the federal budget for the upcoming fiscal year.

Debt

All the money borrowed by the federal government over the years and still not paid.

Cabinet Departments

The fifteen largest and most influential agencies of the federal bureaucracy (Department of State, Treasury, Justice, etc). Headed by Secretary or Attorney General.

Government (Independent Executive) Agencies

All bureaucratic agencies not considered a cabinet department, government corporation, or independent regulatory commission.

Independent Regulatory Commission

A government agency with responsibility for making and enforcing rules to protect the public interest in some part of the economy and for judging disputes over these rules.

Government Corporations

A government organization that, like businesses, provides a service that could be delivered by the private sector and typically charges for its services

Issue Networks

The loose and informal relationships that exist among a large number of actors who work in broad policy areas.

Iron Triangles

A mutually dependent relationship between bureaucratic agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees or subcommittees. They dominate some areas of domestic policymaking.

Patronage

Granting favors or giving contracts or making appointments to office in return for political support.

Civil Service

A system of hiring and promotion based on the merit principle and the desire to create a nonpartisan government service.

Hatch Act

A federal law prohibiting government employees from active participation in partisan politics.

Pendleton Civil Service Act

Passed in 1883, an act that created a federal civil service so that hiring and promotion would be based on merit rather than patronage.

Merit System

A system of public employment in which selection and promotion depend on demonstrated performance rather than political patronage.

Methods of Congressional Oversight on the Bureaucracy

* Influence the appointment of agency heads
* Alter an agency’s budget
* Hold hearings
* Rewrite the legislation or make it more detailed

Methods of Presidential Oversight of Bureaucracy

* Appoint the right people to head the agency in charge
* Issue orders
* Alter an agency’s budget
* Reorganize an agency

“Power of the Purse”

The constitutional power of Congress to raise and spend money. Congress can use this as a negative or checking power over the other branches by freezing or cutting their funds.

Regulation

The use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector.

Deregulation

The lifting of government restrictions on business, industry, and professional activities.

Roles of Bureaucracy

Implementation, administration, and regulation

Gerrymandering

Process of redrawing legislative boundaries for the purpose of benefiting a particular group.

Reapportionment

The process of reassigning representation based on population, completed after every census.

Redistricting

The redrawing of congressional and other legislative district lines following the census, to accommodate population shifts and keep districts as equal as possible in population.

Precedent

The way similar cases have been handled in the past is used as a guide to current decisions.

Stare Decisis

Let the decision stand; decisions are based on precedents from previous cases.

Judicial Activism

An approach to decision making in which judges sometimes make bold policy decisions, even charting new constitutional ground.

Judicial Restraint

An approach to decision making in which judges play minimal policy-making roles and defer to legislatures whenever possible.

Restrictions on the Supreme Court

* Congressional legislation to modify the impact of prior Supreme Court decisions
* Constitutional amendments
* Judicial appointments and confirmations
* The president and states evading or ignoring Supreme Court decisions
* Legislation impacting court jurisdiction

Original Jurisdiction

The jurisdiction of courts that hear a case first, usually in a trial. These are the courts that determine the facts about a case.

Appellate Jurisdiction

The authority of a court to review decisions made by lower courts.

Amicus Curiae Briefs

Legal briefs submitted by a “friend of the court” for the purpose of raising additional points of view and presenting information not contained in the briefs of the formal parties. These briefs attempt to influence a court’s decision.

US Supreme Court

The highest court of the United States; it sits at the top of the federal court system.

Senatorial Courtesy

Presidential custom of submitting the names of prospective appointees for approval to senators from the states in which the appointees are to work.