PSYCH MIDTERM

steps of the scientific method

1. construct a theory
2. generate a hypothesis
3. choose a research method
4. collect data
5. analyze data
6. understand the data, discover trends or relationships between variables
7. revise existing theory

how do you design an experiment?

theory

hypothesis

experiment

Scientific tool used to measure the effect of one variable on another

independant variable

manipulated by the scientist

dependant variable

observed by scientist

control group

a comparison group in a study whose members receive either no intervention at all or some established intervention

comparing dependant to both

minimizing differences in dependant

with-in participants design

 Manipulating the independent variable within each participant to minimize the effect of participant differences on the dependent measure

* __ensure similarity between experimental groups__

practice effect

 an improvement in performance over the course of an experiment as a result of experience, separate from the effect of the independent variable

confounding variable

 a variable associated with an independent variable that obscures the effects of the independent variable on the outcome. This variable makes it difficult to draw findings and conclusions from an experiment

* Leads to questionable results

sample

subset from populations

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populations

all people considered

best sample type:

random

random assignment

assigning participants to either the experimental: or control group at randoms to avoid any biases that may create differences between the groups of participants

* pulling names from a hat

placebo effect

the situation where an individual exhibits a response to a treatment tht is not sure to its real therapeutic effects

blinding participants

* Adding an element to control group to disable placebo effect
* ex, adding collared water to some group and energy drink to other

experimenter bias

 actions made by the experimenter, intentionally or not, that influence the outcome of the experiment

how to avoid espiermenter bias

* Not letting the experiencer know who is in what group
* A friend could change labels to A and B and separate groups into A and B
* This eliminates bias

 

double blind study

experiments in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which group each participant belongs too

histogram

 type of graph used to report the number of times groups of values appear in a data set

frequency distribution

 type of graph illustrating the distribution of how frequently values appear in the data set

* Frequency distributions show the frequency of a given outcome
* Shows how likely each outcome is to occur

normal distribution

a distribution with a characteristic smooth, symmetrical, bell-shaped curve containing a single peak

Why do measures of central tendencies do not sufficiently summarize data?

* Focus of typical value, so it does not tell us how values fall around that point
* Can have same medians with broader spreads
* Cannot tell us the difference between

standard deviation

* average distance of each data point from the mean
* Measures of variability tell us how "spread out" our data is

inferential statistics

 statistics that allow us to use results from samples to make inferences about overall, underlaying populations

T-TEST

*  a statistical test that considers each data point from both groups to calculate the probability that two samples were drawn from the same population
* Produces a P value

P-VALUE

*  probability (0-1) indicating the likelihood of this difference being observed even if no "real" difference exists
* Is the difference large enough to confidently say energy drinks changed results?

not significant

greater than 5% probability of obtaining the observed difference if there is no "real" difference

significant

* less than 5% probability of obtaining the observed difference if there is no "real" difference
* Statistically significant

statistical significance

*  when the difference between 2 groups is due to some true difference between the properties of the 2 groups and not simply due to random variations
* Not simply due to random variation
* Often Look for p value of less then .05 to assets statistical significance

Type 1 error

*  believing a difference when a difference does not exists
* "false alarm"
* Examples:
*  boy who cries wolf"
* Ineffective drug believed effective

type 2 error

* failing to see a difference when a difference does exist
* "miss"
* Examples:
* Failed to call wolf when a wolf was actually attacking sheep and no one helped
* Effective drug believed ineffective
* Since dealing with probability's always possible for error

observational research

Difficult or impossible to preform research due to ethical or practical concerns

* Unethical to make some participants to start smoking cigarettes
* Use observational studies
* Not explicit information

correlation

*  a number between -1 and +1, denoted by "r", indicating both the strength and direction of the correlation
* R= +1 (perfect positive correlation) R= -1 (perfect negative correlated)
* As 1 variable increase the other variable increase as well
* As its weaker is gets closer to 0
* 0 = 0 no relation (IQ and show size)

R values

R values of some correlations can be tricky to decipher

* When they fall on a horizontal line = 0
* No change in no increase or decrease in dependant or independent
* Be cautious about interpreting correlations
* Allergy symptoms vs ice cream consumption = strongly related
* Cannot assume there variables are actually causing effect
* **CORRELATION DOES NOT MEAN CAUSATION**
* Confounding variables^^^^ similarity

who’s groundwork is classical conditioning? and main experiment

Pavlov - dog salivation for food with metronome

contingencies

when one stimulus reliably predicts the presentation of another

* Presentation of one stimulus reliably leads to the presentation of another (signal - event)
* Learns to association between signal and event = contingent relationships 

classical condition

* the learning of a contingency between a particular signal and a later event that are paired in time/ or space
* Periptery in nature
* Salivating when seeing food is an example of classical conditioning
* We learned the sight of a lemon vs the citric acid to tongue
* Critical for avoiding predators
* Flee during signals leading to an attack
* Learning this relationship is critical for survival

unconiditioned stimulus

* Any stimulus or event
* Triggers a response naturally
* Response occurs without any prior learning


* Example: food placed in mouth = response without training

unconditioned response

The response that occurs after the unconditioned stimulus

* Occurs naturally, prior to learning
* Biologically programed reflex

conditioned stimulus

* Paired with the unconditioned stimulus to produce a learned contingency


* The CS usually appears before the US
* Many tried before it shows a response
* When it occurs theirs a contingent relation

conditioned reponse

* The response that occurs once the contingency between the CS and the US has been learned


* The CS creates a CR

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Simple diagram:

CS -> US

|          |

CR      UR

acquisition

The process by which contingency between a CS and US is learned

when is most learning done?

early trials

contingencies are learned…?

slowly

* Is prior learning required for the stimulus to elicit the response?

* NO - Unconditioned
* Yes - conditioned

Are you labeling the triggering event or its outcome

* Event - stimulus
* Outcome - response

how long does a contingency last?

As long as the condition stimuli's is a reliable cue for the unconditioned stimulus

extinction

* the loss of the CR when the CS no longer predicts the US
* Leads to forgetting a contingency
* When the CS is no longer a valid predictor of the US its weaker

2 extinction hypothesis…

* Hypothesis one:  extinction = unlearning the CS
* Expect following extinction would lead to acquisition of the condition response at the same rate as the original training
* Hypothesis two: extinction = learning to inhibit the CS
* Expect retraining between the condition and unconditioned  stimulus would lead too acquisition of condition response at a faster rate than original training

spontaneous recovery

* the sudden recovery of a conditional response following a rest period after extinction
* Suggests that inhibitory Reponses underlie extinction
* Following the extinction procedure in which the stimulus was presented repeat the absence of the US, the conditioned response gradually fades
* However, following a rest period is the CS is presented once more without the US it again elicits an condition response
* This suggest the original learned response is not unlearned rather extinction seems to promote a learned inhibitory response that competes with the original learned contingency
* Classical conditioning has concrete applications across disciplines

stimulus generalization

the process by which stimuli similar to the CS will also elicit a CR

Stimulus discrimination

restricts the range of condition stimuli that can elicit a response

2 important variables in stimulus discrimination

* CS+ = presence of biological stimulus
* CS- = absence of biological stimulus

define generalization and discrimination

* Generalization = flexibility effeiceny
* Discrimination = refines the learning process

therapies for treating phobias

* Implosive therapy: confront condition in imagination
* Systematic desensitization: gradual exposure
* Increasingly fearful stimuli

homeostasis UR, US, CS, CR

* US- increase in blood sugar
* UR- insulin release
* CS-sweet taste
* CR- insulin release

instrumental conditioning

The learning of a contingency between a behaviour and a consequence

Edward al Throndike’s experiment?

 cats in a puzzle box

* Cat was in an escape room, leading to food
* Would cats escape time from puzzle box decline over successful trials?
* Cats learn from trial and error, rather than conscious learning od escape behaviour
* They follow a stimulus response type process
* Little consciousness
* Favourable behaviours are "stamped in", unfavourable behaviours are "stamped out"
* Eventually learns contingency of rope - food

law of effect

* Behaviours with positive consequences are stamped in
* Those with negative consequences are stamped out

 

Instrumental conditioning is also referred to as…

operant conditioning

Reinforcer

any stimulus that is presented after a response that impacts the frequency that the response is preformed

* Behaviours can be changed through either presentation or removal of reinforcers

4 reinforcement types

1. Presentation of a positive reinforcer (increase)
2. Presentation of a negative reinforcer (decrease)
3. Removal of a negative reinforcer (increase)
4. Removal of a positive reinforcer (decrease)

 

reward training  

* presents a positive reinforcer to encourage a behaviour
* Training a dog with a treat

punishment training

Presents a negative reinforcer to discourage a behaviour

* Little Billy gets in trouble for teasing little sister
* Must consider fear or distress
* Authority figure could become a fear signal due to classical conditioning

omission training

* removes a positive reinforcer to discourage a behaviour
* Billy watching tv show and teasing sally - turn off TV for 30 sec every time he teases
* "time outs"

difference between omission and punishment

* Punishment = presentation of a negative reinforcer
* Omission = removal of a positive reinforcer

escape training

* Removes a negative reinforcer to encourage a behaviour
* With fats the floor of the right side shocks them - they just move to other side
* If a child completes HW they can avoid chores (negative reinforcer) on weekends

Acquisition

* in instrumental conditioning depends on the response rate of a behaviour
* Process of acquisition is learning contingency and its consequence

pen and paper model

pen aligns with paper moving, the pen draws a straight line - when the pen responds to the participant is moves up

* How to graphically visualize the response rate of a behaviour
* Flat horizontal = not responding
* Up slope = responding
* Pattern of responding includes, participant, complexity of behaviour, reinforcement used
* Reward training - frequency of behaviour increases

autoshaping

learning without a direct guidance

Eventually learns contingency = consequence

what’s used for complex behaviours?

shaping

complex behaviours are formed with..?

successive approximations

successive approximations

* Organizing behaviours into smaller approximations which build up to full contingency
* Success of approximations = complex bahviours
* Used by animal trainers

chaining

* Chaining develops behaviours is a set sequence
* A technique used to develop a sequence of behaviours
* Each behaviour is reinforced with the opportunity to perform the next behaviour in a sequence
* First learned alphabet ABCDE - chaining order
* Tasks to preform a isolate behaviour from a sequence of chained behaviours

shaping vs chaining:

* Shaping
* Reinforced only if it’s a closer approximation of the desired beahviour than the one last reinforced
* IMPROVMENTS
* Reinforcing on the basis of improvement
* Chaining
* Reinforces behaviour as long as it is preformed in defined order
* Behaviours is chaining sequence as well as the order are set prior to the training
* CORRECT ORDER

 

are contingencies always valid?

NO, depends on situations and locations

* The S+ indicates is valid; the S- indicates when its invalid
* SD/S+ -> Reponses -> reinforcement
* SD: signals when a contingency between a particular behaviour and reinforcement is on
* Contrasts with S delta / S-
* A key which indicated when a contingency relationship is not valid
* The S+ indicated when a contingency is valid; the S- indicated when its invalid

The differences between the CS= and the SD in affecting a response

* The conditioned stimulus of classical conditioning
* CS+ elicits reflexive, involuntary response
* The discriminative stimulus of instrumental conditioning
* SD/ S+ sets the occasion for a voluntary response
* In classical conditioning: the CS- predicts the absence of the US with enough pairings it leads to learning of inhibitory response
* Instrumental conditioning: the S delta signifies that the response reinforcer contingency is not valid

ratio

* Number of responses made by a subject
* Explains when reinforcement is given

interval

* : time
* Based on time since last response that was reinforced
* After periods of time (1 minute a pellet = 60 pellets an hour)

fixed

* constant
* FR- 10 = 10 pec =  get reward
* FI- 10 min - first =ec response after 10 min = reward

variable

* random
* Provided following a variable amount of work or length of time respectively
* VR- 10 = 10 average of 10 pecs to get reward
* Number of pecs changes across trails
* Due to average!!!
* VI-10 min - first response after average 10 min
* Different times each trials
* Overall rate of reinforcement average 10 min must pass before pecking response is reinforced

fixed ratios follow a ____ pattern?

pause and run

* Following a reward the participant pauses in activity before beginning the next run of responding


* Follows an FR-1 schedule

variable ratio

* Reinforcement is delivered after some random number of responses around a chacteristic mean
* Variable ratio schedules can support a high response rate of behaviour
* No pauses in between
* Although its random the person knows only way to get a reward is to keep playing
* May become emotionally attached

 

* The slope of a VR schedule tells the average number of responses before reinforcement
* VR schedules that deliver more frequent reinforcement will support higher repones rates
* VR-10 has a stepper slop than VR-40

 

fixed interval

schedules deliver reinforcement after a fixed interval of time

* There's a low period where responding drops then slowly picks up again and peaks right before next reinforcement

variable interval

* schedules deliver reinforcement after a set average amount of time
* A course with pop quizzes
* Study behaviour is a steady rate
* A VI participant responds in a steady rate
* VI -2min (up to 30 reinforcers/hr) stepper slop
* VI-6 (up to 10 reinforcers/hr)

Partial schedule

* not immediately obvious abrupt change happened


* It is more likely to have consistent actions following a partial schedule as it is more likely for one to stop after not reinforced continuously

who made the operational definition of intelligence

Edwin Boring

intelligence definition according to Edwin boring

* Intelligence is what whatever intelligence tests measure

definition of intelligence 2.o involves:

Intelligence: the cognitive ability of an individual to learn from experience, reason well, remember important information, and cope with the demands of daily living

* Preform cognitive tasks
* Learn from experience & adapt
* Not everyone agrees on how intelligence should be define

problem solving

* Problem solving ability is a reliable indicator of intelligence
* Psychologists are interested in learning strategies we use to problem solve

two forms of reaonsing to solve problems

* deuctive reasoning
* Occurs when a person works from ideas and general information which equals specific conclusions
* Michelle is organized person = desk is spotless
* Inductive reasoning
* Specific facts which equal to general ideas
* Sarah's desk is messy = her being disorganized
* Deductive and inductive reasoning guide the scientific method
* Deductive - generating hypothesis
* Inductive - interpreting data

reliability

*  a reliable test produced the same result if one person takes it multiple times
* Weekly quizzes: tested with a random set of questions = reliable if they keep up a average mark
* Intelligence is a static internal quality

validity

* a valid test actually measures that trait is supposed to be measuring
* Does a tool to measure social influence actually measure social influence?
* In academic world: assessments are measure of you measure ability whereas exams measure their ability memorization

Galtons study

reaction time established the modern study of intelligence

* Intelligence by measuring participants reaction times
* Faster reaction time = higher intelligence

The Weschler scaled of intelligence

most popular today

* WAIS/WISC ( Weschler adult/ children intelligence scale)
* Modelled on a scale developed by Alford benay = IQ
* Iqs scores are standardized relative to the population scores
* IQ mean score = 100
* IQ around mean = around perfect normal distribution with standard deviation of 15
* Gardner believed there were different and distinct types of intelligence

Gaderner 8 types:

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* 8 different types:
* Verbal (linguistic)
* Mathematical (logical)
* Musical (rhythmic)
* Spatial (visual)
* Kinestictic (bodily)
* Interpersonal
* Intrapersonal
* Naturalistic

factors effecting human intelligence

* gentics
* environmental
* nature vs nuture
* \

Flynn effect:

*  the observation that raw IQ scores have been on the rise since 1932
* Mean IQ is always 100 but the raw score is steadily on the rise
* James Flynn
* Raw IQ screes on rise of about 9-15 points every 30 years
* IQ test scores have been rising consistently for years
* The steady increase in the quality of life may explain the Flynn effect

Piget

* Piaget credited intellectual development to active learning in childhood
* Jean Piaget proposed the concept of schemas

schema

*  a mental framework for interpreting the world around
* Consider young children's schema are not fully developed
* Ignore your upset and focus on getting a cookie