AP Psych Unit 6

longitudinal study

studies a person or group of people over an extended period of time

cross-sectional study

compares individuals of various ages at one point in time

genome

the set of complete instructions for making an organism

chromosome

the genetic master code for the body. it is made up of DNA. there are 46 chromosomes (23 from each parent) in the nucleus. males have both an X and Y chromosome. girls have two X chromosomes. the father genetically determines the sex of the baby

DNA

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

identical twins

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. they are genetically no closer than brothers or sisters, but they share a fetal environment

prenatal period

the period of pregnancy that begins with conception and ends 9 months later with birth

conception

the fertilization of the egg

zygote

the fertilized egg. the zygote stage lasts 2 weeks in which there is a period of rapid cell division. by about day 10, the zygote attaches to the mother's uterine wall

differentiation

cells choosing their specialization, such as a stomach or a brain cell

embryo

the developing human organism from 2-8 weeks (2nd month). at this time organs begin to form and function (the heart beats, liver produces red cells, etc.) the umbilical cord forms, and arms and legs are beginning to form

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. at this time hands and feet are developing , at around the 6th month, organs such as the stomach have developed enough to allow a premature born fetus a chance of survival. the fetus is also responsive to the mother's voice.

teratogens

toxic substances that can harm the embryo or fetus if ingested or contracted by the mother. examples are alcohol, drugs, nicotine, HIV, AIDS, etc

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. some characteristics include: disproportioned head, learning disabilities, emotional problems, etc.

neonate

newborn baby

apgar test

a simple and repeatable method to assess the health of a newborn immediately after birth. it rates 5 categories (skin color, pulse rate, reflexes, muscle tone, and breathing) on a scale from 0-2 with the final score ranging from 0-10

pku (phenylketonuria)

a condition that makes it impossible for babies to metabolize certain proteins

reflexes

survival actions with which a baby is born

moro or "startle" reflex

an outstretching of the arms and legs in response to a loud noise or sudden physical change

babinski reflex

in response to a touch on the bottom of the foot, the infant's toes will splay outward and arch back. in adults, the toes just curl in.

sucking reflex

occurs when an object touches the lips

rooting reflex

the turning of an infant's head toward a stimulus such as a breast or hand

grasping reflex

in response to a touch on the palm of the hand, an infant will grasp

swallowing

an infant can swallow, though this reflex is not yet well coordinated with breathing

stepping

if held so that the feet just touch the ground, an infant will show "walking" movements, alternating the feet in steps

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

the sudden death of an infant under 1 year of age that cannot be explained after a thorough investigation is conducted. typically the infant is found dead after having been put to bed, and exhibits no signs of having struggled. SIDS is the leading cause of death among infants aged 1-12 months, and is third leading cause overall of infant mortality in the United States.

habituation

a decrease in responsiveness with repeated stimulation. ex a baby no longer being excited by a toy.

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

assimilation

the process of absorbing new information into an existing schema

accommodation

the process of adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to incorporate new ones to incorporate new information

sensorimotor stage

experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing, and grasping)

sensorimotor stage: typical age range

birth to nearly 2 years

sensorimotor stage: developmental phenomena

-object permanence
-stranger anxiety

preoperational stage

representing things with words and images; use intuitive rather than logical reasoning

preoperational stage: typical age range

2 to about 6 or 7 years

preoperational stage: developmental phenomena

-pretend play
-egocentrism
-language development

concrete operational stage

thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations

concrete operational stage: typical age range

about 7 to 11 year

concrete operational stage: developmental phenomena

-conservation
-mathematical transformations

formal operational stage

abstract reasoning

formal operational stage: typical age range

about 12 through adulthood

formal operational stage: developmental phenomena

-abstract logic
-potential for mature moral reasoning

object permanence

the understanding that objects and people continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. develops in the sensorimotor stage

egocentrism

the inability to consider another person's point of view. found in the preoperational stage

animistic thinking

believing that inanimate objects have feelings. found in the preoperational stage

conservation

the understanding that two equal quantities remain equal even though their form or appearance is rearranged

theory of mind

the ability to attribute mental states (beliefs, intents, desires, pretending, knowledge, etc) to oneself and others and to understand others have beliefs, desires, and intentions that are different from one's own

autism spectrum disorder

disorders that are typically characterized by social deficits, communication difficulties, stereotyped or repetitive behaviors and interests, and in some cases, cognitive delays

secure attachment

forms when parents or caregivers consistently meet the infant's needs by being warm and responsive. securely attached tend to be well-adjusted, form successful social relationships, and perform better at school. during the strange situation test, they freely explore the environment, show moderate anxiety in the presence of strangers and some separation anxiety but is easily comforted upon the caregiver's return (the reunion)

insecure attachment

forms when parents or caregivers fail to fully meet the infant's needs by being neglectful and inconsistent. insecure infants tend to form shallow relationships, appear withdrawn and sometimes display an insatiable need for affection

insecure ambivalent

during the Strange Situation test, the infant shows a great deal of anxiety, engages in little exploration, becomes distressed in the absence of the caregiver and in the presence of a stranger. upon the return of the caregiver (the reunion), the infant is difficult to console

insecure avoidant

during the Strange Situation test, the infant shows little distress in the absence of the caregiver and in the presence of a stranger. upon the return of the caregiver (the reunion), the infant does not seek contact

critical period

the period of time when an organism has heightened sensitivity for the development of a particular skill

imprinting

recognition of and attraction to members of one's own species or to surrogates

authoritarian

a parenting style that has rigid rules, enforces strict punishments, and rarely, listens to the kid's viewpoints. according to baumrind, kids who grow up under the authoritarian parenting style tend to be moody, aggressive, and often lack good communication skills

authoritative/ democratic

a parenting style that sets firm rules, makes reasonable demands, and listens to the kid's viewpoints while insisting on responsible behavior. according to baumrind, kids who grow up under the authoritative parenting style tend to be well-adjusted, goal oriented, and socially competent

piaget's stages

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

permissive

a parenting style that sets few rules, makes minimal demands, and allows the kids to reach their own decisions. according to baumrind, kids who grow up under the permissive parenting style tend to be impulsive, immature, and often fail to respect others, especially authority

neglectful

a parenting style in which the parent is non-existent

erikson's stages

infancy, toddlerhood, preschooler, elementary school, adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood, late adulthood

infancy: approximate age

to 1 year

infancy: issues

trust vs mistrust

infancy: description of task

if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust

toddlerhood: approximate age

1-2 years

toddlerhood: issues

autonomy vs shame and doubt

toddlerhood: description of task

toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities

preschooler: approximate age

3-5 years

preschooler: issues

initiative vs guilt

preschooler: description of task

preschoolers learnt to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent.

elementary school: approximate age

6 years to puberty

elementary school: issues

competence vs inferiority

elementary school: description of task

children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

adolescence: approximate age

teen years into 20s

adolescence: issues

identity vs role confusion

adolescence: description of task

teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are

young adulthood: approximate age

20s to early 40s

young adulthood: issues

intimacy vs isolation

young adulthood: description of task

young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated

middle adulthood: approximate age

40s-60s

middle adulthood: issues

generativity vs stagnation

middle adulthood: description of task

In middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose

late adulthood: approximate age

late 60s and up

late adulthood: issues

integrity vs despair

late adulthood: description of task

when reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

basic trust

a sense that the world is predictable and reliable. erikson attributes basic trust to early parenting and says that it gives a life-long attitude of basic trust rather than fear. this can be found in the infancy: trust vs mistrust stage of erik erikson's stages of psychosocial development

self-concept

knowing who you are. this can be found in the toddlerhood: autonomy vs shame and doubt stage of erik erikson's stages of psychosocial development

five stages of grief

the stages people go through when facing death lt another terrible extreme fate. 1. denial, 2. anger, 3. bargaining, 4. depression, 5: acceptance

denial

"i feel fine", "this cant be happening, not to me". denial is usually only a temporary defense for the individual

anger

"why me? it's not fair" "how can this happen to me" because of anger, the person is very difficult to care for due to misplaced feelings of rage and envy

bargaining

"i'll do anything for a few more years" involves the hope that the individual can somehow postpone or delay death, or the tragedy

depression

the dying person begins to understand the certainty of death. because of this, the individual may become silent, refuse visitors and spend much of the time crying and grieving

acceptance

individuals begin to come to terms with their mortality, or that of a loved one, or other tragic event

adolescence

the period of time between puberty and adulthood when people experience physical, social, and moral changes

puberty

the physical beginnings of sexual maturity

primary sex characteristics

the organs needed for reproduction (ovaries in the female, testes in the male, and external genitalia)

secondary sex characteristics

non-reproductive traits (enlargement of the hips and breasts in females, facial hair and deepening voice in males, the development of pubic and underarm hair in both females and males).

menarche

a girl's first menstrual period

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation, also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

morality

accepted moral standards: standards of conduct that are generally accepted as right or proper