Research Methods in Psychology Midterm

Empiricism

systematically using measurement and observations to make conclusions

Theory-Data-Cycle

Theory -> question -> design -> preregister hypothesis -> data -> support or revision

Theory

statement that describes how variables relate to each other and general principles

Hypothesis

prediction

Data

set of observations or measurement

Pre-registered

After a study is designed, but before collecting data

Replication

retest a study to check for consistency

Weight of Evidence

collection of studies and replications for a specific theory

Falsifiability

hypothesis that has the potential to not support a theory

Merton’s Scientific Norms

Universalism, Communality, Disinterested, Organized Skepticism

Universalism

anyone can do science no matter the level of education

Communality

Scientific findings should be shared to the public and other scientists

Disinterestedness

a scientists biases should not alter the data or results of a study

Organized Skepticism

Question everything and ask for evidence

Applied Research

research that addresses a practical problem that is applied in real world contexts

Basic Research

research that adds to the general body of knowledge

Translational Research

Research that turns basic research into applied research

Academic Journal

peer reviewed

Journalism

Secondhand report on research from a layperson

Mozart Effect

example of how journalists can misrepresent scientific findings

Comparison Group

Confound

potential alternative explanation for a research findings that threatens internal validity

Confederate

An actor instructed to play a specific role in an experiment

Probabilistic

Describes how the empirical method aims to represent a majority of cases, not all cases

Confirmation Bias

tendency to cherry-pick evidence that supports the answer you WANT to find

Availability Heuristic

incorrectly estimating how frequent something is based on how easy it is for you to recall

Present Bias

incorrectly assessing the relationship of an event and its outcome based on times where evidence is present and failing to consider evidence that is absent or hard to notice

Bias Blind Spot

tendency to believe that you are less bias than others

Disinformation

deliberate creation and distribution of information known to be false

Meta-analysis

mathematically averaging the effect sizes of all studies that have tested the same variables to identify the conclusion that a whole body of evidence supports

Why is meta-analysis valued

it weighs studies proportionally and prevents cherry-picking

Open Access

peer reviewed academic journals that are free to the general public

Paywalled

Peer reviewed academic journals that the public can only access if they pay a fee

Effect size

magnitude or strength of a relationship between 2 or more variables

Review Journal Article

summarization of all studies that have published in one research area

Constructs/Conceptual Variables

name of the concept being studied or a theoretical definition of the construct

Operational Variables

how the concept is measured or manipulated as variable in a study

Operationalize

to turn a concept into something that can be measured and manipulated

Variable

something that has at least 2 levels or values

Level

condition; one of the possible variations or values of a variable

Constant

a variable that could vary but has only one level in the study

Measured variable

variable whose levels are observed and recorded

Manipulated Variable

variable that the researcher controls

Frequency claim

quantitative; singular variable; always measured, NEVER MANIPULATED; describe a particular rate or degree of a single variable

Association claim

non-absolutes; describes how one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable

What validities should you think about when presented with an association claim

construct, external, and statistical validity

Causal Claim

absolutes; one variable CAUSES a change in the other (2 variables)

Correlate

covary; when one variable changes, so does the other variable; at least 2 variables

Correlational Study

study in which the variables are measured and the relationship between them is tested

Positive association

high with high, low with low

What is one way a scatterplot can be used

when you want to represent an association

Negative/inverse association

high with low, low with high

Zero Association

no slope

What does the following language suggest → cause, enhance, decrease, change, affect, promotes, reduces, hurts, adds, trims, sometimes makes, increases, worsens, may lead to, fights, changes, distracts, exacerbates, prevents, may curb

Causal claims

What does the following language suggest → is linked to, is at higher risk for, in association with, is correlated with, prefers, is more/less likely to, may predict, is tied to, goes with

What does tentative language suggest → could, may, seem, suggest, sometimes, potentially, advice

What 3 criteria are needed to prove a causal relationship?

1. relationship between variables can’t be zero 2) causal variable must come BEFORE the outcome variable 3) no other explanations exist for the relationship

What are the 4 big validities?

construct, external, statistical, and internal validity

Validity

appropriateness of a conclusion or decision; is it measuring what it is supposed to measure

What are the characteristics of a valid claim

reasonable, accurate, and justifiable

What validities are used to evaluate a frequency claim

construct and external validity

Construct Validity

how well a conceptual variable is operationalized; how well a study measured or manipulated a variable

What is needed to ensure construct validity

each variable must be reliable and each level of the variable must be accurate

Generalizability

how were the study’s participants chosen and how well do participants represent the intended population

External Validity

how well the results of a study generalize to/represent people or contexts besides those in the original study

Statistical Validity

how precise, reasonable, and replicable a studies statistical conclusion is

Point Estimate

single numerical value that estimates a parameter

Confidence Interval

range designed to include the true population value a high proportion of the time

How is precision measured in a frequency claim

confidence intervals and margin of error of the estimate

What improves statistical validity

multiple estimates

How do you integrate an association claim

how well the correlational study behind the claim supports construct, external, and statistical validity

What criteria must be assessed to determine causation

covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity

Margin of error

Covariance

the extent to which 2 variables are observed to go together

Temporal Precedence

method was designed so that the causal variable comes first in time before the effect variable

Internal validity

the degree of confidence that the causal relationship is not influenced by other variables or factors

Experiment

one variable is manipulated and the other is measured

What variable do you manipulate in an experiment

the variable thought to be the cause

What variable do you measure in an experiment

the variable thought to be the effect or outcome

Dependent variable

measured variable

Independent variable

manipulated variable

What ensures that the causal variable comes first?

manipulating the independent variable

Random Assignment

What is one benefit of random assignment

it increases internal validity

If a study does not meet one of the validities, should you conclude the study is faulty?

no

Debriefed

carefully informed about the studies hypotheses

Nuremburg Code

not a formal law, but influences ethical research laws in many countries

Declaration of Helsinki

guide for ethics in medical research and practice internationally

Belmont Report

ethical system in the U.S. that defined the ethical guidelines for researchers to follow

What are the principles in the Belmont Report

respect for persons, beneficence, and justice

Principle respect for persons

individuals potentially involved in research should be treated as autonomous agents and people with less autonomy are entitled to special protection for informed consent

Informed consent

individuals learn about the research projects to consider risks and benefits, to ultimately decide whether to participate in the study

What is not allowed when obtaining informed consent

researchers are not allowed to mislead people about the risks and benefits of the study and they can’t coerce or unduly influence a person into participating

Undue influence

offering an incentive too attractive to refuse

What is this an example of → a research study offers a large compensation to poor people who join their study

undue influence

What groups are entitled to special protection when it comes to informed consent

children, people who have developmental or intellectual disabilities, and prisoners

Why might children be unable to give informed consent

children may not understand the procedures involved well enough to make an informed decision

Why are prisoners susceptible to coercion

they may perceive requests to participate in research demands

Principle of beneficence

require that researchers must take precautions to protect participants from harm and ensure their wellbeing

How do researchers apply the principle of beneficence

carefully assess the risks and benefits of the study and how the community might benefit or be harmed