AT Psychology — Personality, Social Psychology, and Perception Unit

Bottom-up processing:

Analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's interrogation of sensory information (SENSORY -\> WHOLE)

Top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations (WHOLE -\> SENSORY)

Selective attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Change blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment

Figure and ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

Grouping

The perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into meaningful groups

Gestalt rules

Laws that the brain uses to group or organize elements of a scene

Proximity

Close elements tend to be grouped together -\> we assume that they go together

Similarity

The tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group

Continuity

The tendency to perceive things as simply as possible with a continuous pattern rather than with a complex, broken-up pattern

Closure

The tendency to complete figures that are incomplete

Simplicity

The tendency to organize elements in the simplest way possible

Depth perception

seeing in three-dimensions

Phi phenomenon

the illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession.

binocular depth cues

clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes

monocular depth cues

cues of depth perception that are available to each eye alone (just means that you only need one eye to perceive depth)

pictorial depth cues

clues about distance that can be given in a flat picture

\-Relative image size

\-Linear perspective

\-Texture gradient

\-Position relative to horizon

\-Differential lighting of surfaces (shading)

retinal disparity

the fact that the left and right fields of vision provide slightly different visual images when focusing on a single object. Only works up to 25ft

texture gradients

as distance increases, a texture gradually becomes denser and less distinct

height and plane

near objects are low in the visual field while more distant ones are higher up

light and shadow

create a impression of three dimensional forms

interposition

shapes of near objects overlap or mask distant ones

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to converge with distance

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

visual illusion

An apparently inexplicable discrepancy between the appearance of a visual stimulus and its physical reality.

Reversible figure

A drawing that is compatible with two different interpretations that can shift back and forth.

Inattentional blindness

the failure to see fully visible objects or events in a visual display because one's attention is focused elsewhere

perceptual set

a readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way

perceptual hypothesis

Educated guesses that we make while interpreting sensory information. These hypotheses are informed by a number of factors, including our personalities, experiences, and expectations.

feature analysis

the process of detecting specific elements in visual input and assembling them into a more complex form

subliminal perception

the processing of information by sensory systems without conscious awareness

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

norms

shared rules of conduct that tell people how to act in specific situations

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Zimbardo Prison Experiment

Study involving 24 healthy subjects given the role of prison guards or inmates. The people assigned to be guards became hostile and aggressive, those assigned to be prisoners generally felt hopeless and victimized.

routinization

a behavior that has been so well learned and frequently repeated that it no longer takes conscious control to execute

entrapment

a process in which one makes increasing commitments to a failing course of action or an unattainable goal in order to justify the amount of time and effort already invested, feeling helpless to do otherwise. Eg. Sally invests more effort into her relationship after facing partner violence

just-world hypothesis

refers to our belief that the world is fair, and consequently, that the moral standings of our actions will determine our outcomes.

conformity

human nature to follow what others do

Asch experiment

* Asked subjects which line looks closer to the standard line
* Got everyone else (actors) to say the obvious wrong answer
* Looked to see if the subject chose the same wrong answer like everyone else

normative influence

when people conform to social norms for fear of negative social consequences

informational influence

when people look to others for guidance about how to behave in ambiguous situations

obedience

compliance with an order, request, or law or submission to another's authority.

Milgram experiment

Obedience: an experiment devised in 1961 by Stanley Milgram, a psychologist at Yale University, to see how far ordinary people would go to obey a scientific authority figure

group norms

Shared guidelines or rules for behavior that most group members follow

group polarization

when group discussion strengthens a group's dominant point of view and produces a shift toward a more extreme decision in that direction

groupthink

when members of a cohesive group emphasize concurrence at the expense of critical thinking in arriving at a decision

diffusion of responsibility

occurs in a group situation. If you are by yourself the responsibility rests on your shoulders. However, if other people are present, the responsibility is divided among you.

bystander effect/ bystander apathy

people are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups then when they are alone

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

deindividuation

when an individual seems to lose himself or herself in the group's identity

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

collectivist vs individualist cultures

Collectivist- emphasize group goals

individualist- prioritize individual goals

social facilitation

improved performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered

Personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Psychoanalytic Approach

psychological perspective concerned with how unconscious instincts, conflicts, motives, and defenses influence behavior

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

psychodynamic theories

modern-day approaches that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences

Id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

pleasure principle

Freud's theory regarding the id's desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain in order to achieve immediate gratification.

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

reality principle

tendency of the ego to postpone gratification until it can find an appropriate outlet

Superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

rationalization

defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

Projection

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

displacement

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

sublimation

a mature type of defense mechanism, in which socially unacceptable impulses or idealizations are transformed into socially acceptable actions or behavior, possibly resulting in a long-term conversion of the initial impulse.

reaction formation

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

Regression

psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

denial

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities.

compensation

a defense mechanism that conceals your undesirable shortcomings by exaggerating desirable behaviors

Identification

Acting like someone you admire

psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

oral

birth-1 year. Sucking activities towards breast or bottle

anal

1-3, enjoy holding and releasing urine and feces

phallic

pleasure in genital stimulation, Oedipus conflict for boys and Electra conflict for girls. 3-6

latency

sexual instincts die down, superego develops

genital

adolescence, sexual impulses of the phalic stage reappear

Oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

Penis Envy

According to Freud, the female desire to have a penis - a condition that usually results in their attraction to males.

Womb Envy

a man's want to be able to reproduce

Fixation

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

Karen Horney

neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends; concept of "basic anxiety"

Alfred Adler

Neo-Freudian; introduced concept of "inferiority complex" and stressed the importance of birth order

Inferiority Complex

Alder's concept of feelings of low self-esteem that can lead to overcompensation for such feelings

Carl Jung

neo-Freudian who created concept of "collective unconscious" and wrote books on dream interpretation

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history. Eg. All societies have a version of the wicked witch or a universal fear of snakes and arachne

Archetypes

Emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning. Eg. the mandala, or "magic circle," has served as a symbol of the unified wholeness of the self or superman portrays selflessness and heroism

Projective Tests

Personality assessments present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind. Is said to evoke responses that may reveal facets of the subject's personality or internal trait.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Showing ambiguous inkblots where your unconscious guides you when interpreting the inkblots. Used to examine a person's personality characteristics and emotional functioning.

Thematic Apperception Test

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Trait Approach

an approach to studying personality that focuses on how individuals differ in personality dispositions

MMPI

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a psychological test that assesses personality traits and psychopathology. It is primarily intended to test people who are suspected of having mental health or other clinical issues. (Rates people on ten scales)

factor analysis

Has been used to identify clusters of personality traits that are closely related -\> came up with the Five Factor Model of Personality

the "Big Five" personality traits

1. Agreeable
2. Open
3. Stable
4. Extroverted
5. Conscientious