PSYCH 160 Exam 1

microsystem

the relationships in which the person takes part

mesosystem

the interaction of microsystems

exosystem

a system of institutions in which you are not an active participant, but which still influence you

macrosystem

the broader political and cultural system in which one develops

chronosystem

your personal timeline/history and the historical time period in which you grew up

cross-sectional/cohort

compares different groups of people of different ages

longitudinal

tracks changes in a group of people over time

cross-sequential

compares different groups of people at different ages then tracks each group over time

biopsychological

how our biological and physical development influences our psychological development

cognitive

how thinking develops and how the way that we think affects our behavior

behavioral

how responses to behavior increase the frequency of behavior and how behavior becomes associated with cues in the environment

social cognitive

how our personal experiences and our environment shape our interpretations of the world around us and how these interpretations influence our behavior

humanistic

how our desire to meet our needs and fulfill our potential drives our behavior

psychoanalytic

how our development is driven by the interaction between our unconscious desires and our environment

biopsychosocial

how physiological, genetic, neurological, and evolutionary factors interact with our environment to shape our behavior

diathesis-stress

people of different genotypes may be more susceptible to environmental risks

vantage-sensitivity

some genetic variations increase the impact of positive environments

differential susceptibility

some genotypes are more sensitive to environmental influences

synaptogenesis

the process of forming connections between synapses

synaptic pruning

the process of cutting back on unnecessary dendrites and synapses

myelination

the acquisition of a myelin membrane around the axons

equilibrium

when our schemas fit our experiences

assimilation

extending or adding to an existing schema

accommodation

modifying an existing schema or creating a new schema

sensorimotor stage (0-2 years)

physical actions

object permanence

the knowledge that an object continues to exist even though one cannot see it, develops around 8 months

circular reactions

repeated actions

primary actions

related to their own bodies

secondary actions

on objects around them

tertiary actions

intentionally vary actions to see what will happen to objects

babbling

stringing together longer sequences of consonant-vowel combinations (starts at 6 months)

holophrases

one-word sentences

fast mapping

quickly linking a word and object

overextension

a word is incorrectly applied to similar objects

under-extension

child applies a word too narrowly to a specific object

primary emotions

pleasure, joy, fear, distress

secondary emotions

pride, shame, embarrassment (after first year)

attachment

long-lasting emotional bonds between children and specific adults from which the child derives a sense of security

secure:

easily comforted by mother upon return

insecure ambivalent/resistant

not easily comforted by mother

insecure avoidant

doesn’t try to reconnect with mother

insecure disorganized

contradictory and unusual

temperament

innate, or inborn, tendencies that we have to react to others and to the world around us in certain ways

surgency-extraversion

the extent to which they seek out new sensations and positive anticipation

negative affectivity

the extent to which an infant is fussy or shows fear, anger, or social discomfort

effortful control

the extent to which the infant can focus attention; shows perceptual sensitivity or inhibitory control

behavioral inhibition

the tendency for infants to react with fear or withdrawal to new situations

goodness-of-fit

the extent to which the child’s environment fits the child’s temperament

interactional synchrony

a pattern of interaction between child and caregiver in which each is tuned in to the responses of each other

trust vs mistrust (0-1 years)

trust develops through mastery of own body and responsive caregiving, faith in the world

autonomy vs shame/doubt (1-3 years)

autonomy develops from being allowed to try and explore with guidance, shame/doubt develops from being punished too harshly for mistakes

zygote

single cell from which a human being will develop

germinal stage (first 14 days)

cell division and duplication, development from zygote to multicellular organism, implantation in uterus

embryonic stage (14-56 days)

embryo takes human shape, primitive streak develops, body structures start to develop

fetal stage (56 days onward)

growth of sex organs, cardiovascular, digestive, and excretory systems, brain development, age of viability reached

cephalocaudal development

development starts with the head and moves downward (head→tail)

proximodistal development

extremities of the body develop last (near→far)

primitive streak

thin split in the upper layer of the embryo, stem cells move here from the outer layer where they develop into the neural tube

age of viability

the point at which the baby can survive outside of the womb and the brain is able to control the major bodily systems (22 weeks)

teratogen

any factor between conception and birth that can adversely affect prenatal development

critical period

time during which a behavior or system will develop if the right environmental input is present (first 8 weeks of life)

sensitive period

time during which an aspect of development can best develop and during which it is most susceptible to environmental influences (after the first 8 weeks)

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

caused by early exposure to heavy drinking, causes intellectual disability and distorted facial characteristics

gene

segments of DNA, three of the chemicals in DNA (e.g. CAG, TTA)

gametes

sex cells (haploid→only 23 chromosomes), get one chromosome from each of the parent’s 23 pairs

intersex

individuals with biological features of males and females

Klinefelter syndrome

males with an extra X chromosome (XXY), caused by genetic mutation, reduced testosterone production

Downs Syndrome

caused by the presence of a partial or full extra copy of chromosome 21

trisomy 21

failure of chromosome 21 to split

inherited condition

a condition passed from parent to child through genes

fragile x syndrome

caused by a mutated gene on the dominant X chromosome

Apgar scale

an assessment of the baby’s health performed after birth

moro reflex (startle reflex)

baby flings out arms and brings them back towards their body when startled

rooting reflex (feeding)

baby turns head towards touch when cheek is brushed

grasping reflex

baby will close fingers over yours in the palm of their hand

walking reflex

when baby is help upright with feet touching a surface, baby’s feet will move in a walking motion

gross motor skills

large movements of the body

fine motor skills

small motor movements

axon

fiber that protrudes from the cell body

dendrites

fibers that protrude from the end of the axon

synapse

the narrow space that separates the dendrites of each individual neuron from one another

neurotransmitters

neurochemicals, cause next neural cell to generate an electrical impulse

myelin

the fatty substance coating axons of nerve cells

stem/lower brain

controls movement and involuntary functions (e.g. breathing)

midbrain

at the top of brain stem, controls arousal, visual and auditory reflexes, and voluntary movement

forebrain

cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus

cerebrum

cerebral cortex and prefrontal cortex

cerebral cortex

has the familiar folds

prefrontal cortex

behind our foreheads; responsible for planning, conscious control, and monitoring our actions

transient exuberance

the rapid increase in dendrite growth and synapse formation during the first 24 months of postnatal life

semantics

meaning of language or understanding the shared meaning of sounds

syntax

the rules for putting words together

pragmatics

the rules of how language is used in a social group

language acquisition device (LAD)

a mental structure that helps children acquire language

principles-and-parameters approach

languages have similar basic principles but differ in other values (parameters)

language acquisition support system (LASS)

adults and their environment encourage them while language learning

child-directed speech

exaggerated, repetitive, high-pitched, simply constructed, and facilitates language acquisition

classical conditioning

behaviors are learned by connecting a neutral stimulus with a positive one

operant conditioning

uses rewards and punishments to modify behavior

personal agency

being able to do things, and a sense of an internal world, an awareness of one’s thoughts and feelings