Chapters 18 and 20 TNE Test 2 Review

Bantu-speaking peoples politics

no elaborate hierarchy of officals or bureacratic systems. Governed themselves mostly through family and kinship groups.

settled in lands w populations of around 100 ppl

Older male heads of families made up the ruling council for the village, a group that dealed with public affairs in village. Most prominent of the family heads presided over the village as a chief, and was the represenative of the village when dealing with neighbors.

Groups of villages were connected by kinship ties

No larger government for regions, however, regions were connected by interaction between village chiefs.

Within individual villages, family and kinship groups stepped up as disciplinaries.

Kin-based societies work well in small communities, however these societies often grew large.

Jenne-jeno

speakers of Niger-Congo languages est. socieites on middle streches of the Niger river. Settlers came with iron tools in late centuries of BCE, by 400 BCE the settlement of Jenne-jeno (located south of the city of Jenne in Mali) emerged as center of iron production and manufactured textiles. Merchant's of Jenne-jeno handled iron products, in addition to rice, fish, animals such as cattle, sheep and goats. Particapated in an extensive trade network reaching all the way from North Africa and the Mediterannean to the savanas and forests of Central Africa. By 8th century BCE, Jenne-jeno became the comercial crossroads of west AFrica.

With the rise of west African kingdoms and empires, Jenne-jeno fell, but its legacy inspired the foundation of other cities like Timbuktu.

Chiefdoms

After 1000 CE kin based socieites faced challenges as rhey sought after human labor and valuable trade routes. Thus, conglicts between villages and regions was frequent and intense. African communities responded by forming military organization, leading to the organization of a more formal structure of government. Many regions fell under authoirity of powerful chiefs who conquered neighbors and grabbed power and formed small kingdoms. Said kingdoms arose after 1000 CE. Kingdoms of Ife and Benin arose in forested regions of west Africa. Both were city states with residents governed by family and political relationships. Both produced sculptures of faces that documented early history of sub-saharan africa.

Kingdom of Kongo

basin of the Congo River hotbed for political development. Economic development supported emergence of kingdoms both big and small. 1000 CE economic and military challenges encouraged kin based societies in the Congo region to form small states that embraced a few villages. 1200, conflict between states resulted in organization of larger regional groups that could resist political and military pressures better than small kingdoms could. Kingdom of Kongo one of the most prosperous of these.

KoK participated actively on trade networks involving copper, raffia cloth and nzimbu shells. During 15th century KoK comprised much of modern day republic of Congo and Angola.

was the most tightly organized of the early Bantu kingdoms.

Central government of KoK

included a king and officials overseeing military, judicial and finincial affairs. Six provinces administered by governors who supervised districts that were administred by subordinate officals. In regions, villages ruled by chiefs provided local government.

central government maintaned a royal currency system based on sea shells from the Indian Ocean.

KoK had effective centralized rule from 14th to 17th centuries

Patterns throughout sub-saharan africa******

very diverse, different size of different societies, different languages 800 diff languages spoken.

Social Classes sub-saharan

in kingdoms, empires and city states, such as Kongo, Mali and Kilwa respectively, African peoples developed complex societies with clearly defined classes. There were ruling elites, militry nobles, administrative officials, religous authorities, wealthy merchants, artisans, business entrepeneaurs, common people, peasants and slaves. Resembled social classes found in settled agricultural lands of Eurasia.

social class structure of kin-based sub-saharan societies

different from kingdoms empires and city states

had aristrocrats and ruling elites as well as religious authority,

kinship, sex and gender, age groupings were main determiners of social position.

Kinship groups

In small scale agricultural and foraging socities extended families and clans served as main foundation of social and economic organization. Did not recognize private ownership of land unlike north africa or eurasia. Communities would claim right to land and use it as a shared space. villages consisted of several extended family groups. Male heads of families jointly governed the village and organized their own groups' work. Allocated portions of communal land for theur relatives to cultivate and were also responsible for distributing harvests equally amongst the membrs of their groups. Most villages functioned in society firsr as members of a family or a lineage.

division of labor

sex determined work. Men dominated most prestigous trades, such as leather tanning which required knowledge and careful technique, passed down to heirs. Men dominated iron working, which was a very highly valued skill in African society bc blacksmiths knew how to turn ores into useful materials. Blacksmiths often served as community leaders, and like leather tanners, passed on sacred knowledge to their heirs.

Women in blacksmith families were potters. Prestige due to abikity to turn earth materials into useful pottery.

In agricultural life: men did heavy labor such as clearing land. Women planted and harvested crops, and handled domestic affairs.

women's roles

Men monoplized public authority, women in sub-saharan africa had more oppurtunity than elsewhere. Women were venerated as the sources of life. Occasionally, women rose to positions of power, and aristrocratic women often influenced public affairs by virtue of their prominence in their families. Women merchants engaged in trade. Some women in military in all-female military groups.

age grades

age groups played a role in contributuing to society. Members of age grades, which included all individuals in a community brn in a few yrs of one another, performed tasks fitting their development, and bonded as friends and political allies. Built social ties that transcended family and kinship.

Did things like aid elders, and help members of community experiencing adversity

slavery

slaves stood out from class system. most slaves were captives of war. others were in debt or criminals. mostly worked as domestic servants. slave ownership was a major form of personal wealth. Since land was communal, wealth could not be accumalated by land holdings, but slave owners could build wealth on the foundation of their slaves work that increased agricultural production.

slave trading

9th century, increase of trans saharan and indian ocean trade led stimulated increased traffic of African slave trade.

Demand for slaves in India, Persia, southwest Asia, Mediterranean basin was higher than supply in eastern europe where most slaves cam from, thus merchants from those lands began trading for African slaves.

In response to demand, African states and empires began conquering smaller states and kinbased societies so that they could find captives to put into slavery.

10000-20000 ppl forced into slavery

Mid-fourteenth cent, Morocan traveler named Ibn Battuta transported 600 slaves across the Sahara

Mansa Musa set up his pilgramige to Mecca with 500 slaves, many of which he gifted away.

the zanj revolt

zanj referred to black slaves from the Swahili coast. Zanj slaves worked under terrible conditions in Mesoptemia, revolted but quelled mulitple times.

In the year 869, enslaved man named Ali bin Muhammad organzied 15000 slaves into a large force that captured the most important city of souther Meso called Basra. Leaders only addressed the revolt in 879, and by 883 they crushed the revolt and killed Al bin Muhammad.

despite collapse, the Zanj revolt demonstrated the enslaved ppls determinination to escape anf the desire of the slaveholders to maintain the status quo.

Islamic slave trade was sizeable, lasting from 750-1500 CE with the number of African slaves exported to foreign lands was more than 10 million.

High demand for slaves led to creation of netwroks in Africa that served the purpose of capturing ppl to put into slavery.

African religions

sub-saharan had wide range of langauges, societies, and cultural traditions.

many different forms of practices. many different dieties all with different names, honored them with different rituals

Strongly valued morality and proper behavior as sources of world maintainence. Bc so important, family and kinship groups took responsibility to police behavior.

Concerned with practical matter of maintaining world order

Creator God

Many African ppls recognized a single, dominant creator god from the early days of Sudanic agriculture. Beliefs developed as ind heard more abt other places deities and sought to improve their own religious undertsanding. Nevertheless, many recongned a single divine force or male god that controlled the world abd provided it w order. Some thought he was all powerful and he influenced indirectly

Lesser deities and spirits

Africans also recognized many lesser dieties often assocdiated with natural features. These gods particapated actively in happenings of world. also thought that souls of departed ancestors intervened in descendents lives. Ancestors rewarded good descendants, punmished sinful ones.

Religious specialists

believed in individuals either born with or trained in the art of communicating with supernatural beings. Referred to as diviners: usually men. Sometimes women.

When region afflicted by illness or crop failure or disaster, ppl consulted diviners to learn cause of misfortune. Diviners would go to oracles, identified the source of the problem, then prescribed neceassary rituals or sacrifices to eliminate the problem.

arrival of christianity

alongside practical religion, sub-saharan won over by Chritianity and Islam. Both arrived as foregin relgions brought in by outsiders.

Early north african christianity

Chr reached no. africa and egypt in 1st century CE. Alexandria in Egypt became a prominent center for Chr, and north africa home to St. Augustine, one of many leaders of early church. For a while was only a mediterreanan tradition that did not reach sub-Saharan just yet.

Christian Kingdom of Axum

fourth cent ce, Chr est. foothold in kingdom of Axum. Highlands of modern day ethopia. First convertd local merchants who int to Chr through Med. trade. Kings also converted to Chr, some of the first royal converts to the religion. Soon after missionaries est. monasteries and translated Bible to the Ethipoian langauge.

Late 7th cent CE, rulers of Axum declined, and expansion of Islam left isolated Chr in only Ethiopia.

12th cent. new ruling dynasty took over and promotoed Chr as a foundation for cultural unity.
12-16th cent. Chr strong in Ethiopia. 12th cen. Ethi. kings ordered carving of 11 churrches out of rock
13th cent. Kings claimed lineage to Israelites to try and gain Biblical authority.

Chr. strong in Ethiopia all tge way to socialist revolution in 1974.

Eth Christianity

no contact with other christians, so maintained basic theology and rituals

16th cen when Portuguese came Christianity devolped fitting the outside world

Islamic Kingdoms and Empires

7th and 8th cent merchants from north Adrica and sowest china introduced Islam to sub-saharan Africa. Islam arrived via trans-Saharan camel caravans AND also to east africa via Indian ocean trade vessels.

Islam after 8th cent sign. influenced saharan and Sub-Sahran politics, social life, culture, religion and economiscs.

At same time, Africans in East and West africa adapyed islam to own cultures, giving it disitint african characteristics.

Trans-Saharan Trade and Islamic States in West Africa

camels

camels integral to communication and transportation across the Sahara.
Came to North Africa from Arabia, around the 1000 BCE. Late centuries BCE special camel saddle came to north africa that took advantage of camels unique physical structure.

Caravans took 70-90 days to cross the Sahara, camels useful bc they could survive long distances without needing water.

After 300 CE Camels had completely replaced horses and other forms of travel

Integration

Arabs introduced islam during 7th and 8th cent., also intefrated larger networl of commerce and communication. Muslims of North Africa explored potential trade across the Sahara. By late 8th cent., searching for gold, Islamic merchants est. commercial relations with societies of sub-Saharan west africca.

The Kingdom of Ghana

principal state of west Africa upon Muslim arrival. Situated between Senegal and Niger Rivers.

Gold trade

KOG became most imp commercial site in west Africa bc of the gold mined nearby. Did not produce gold, but taxed its trade, leading to enrichment of kings and strengthing of realm.

Koumbi-Saleh

integration into sub-Saharan trade networks lead to wealth and power in KOG. Capital of the Kingdom was Koumbi-Saleh, which became the kingdom's principal trading site. At height from 9th-12 cent, population between 15000-20000 ppl.

Al-Bakari, spanish muslim traveler said Koumbi-Saleh was a flourishing city with buildings of stone and more than a dozen mosques.

City wealth also supported Muslim scholars, and tax from trade also allowed them to finance a large army that protected sources of gold, maintained order, kept allies in line, and defended the kingdom

Islam in west Africa

10th cent., kings Ghana had converted to Islam. led to improved relations with Muslim merhants from north Africa and Muslim nomads transporting goods in the Sahara. Also brought recognition and support from Muslim states in No. Africa. Ghana didn;t force islam on subjects, open to all religions. Many ppl of the Kingdom did convert however, especially thos involved in trade with Muslim merchants from the north.

Decline of Kingdom of Ghana

expnaded north made them more vulnerable to attacks from Nomads vying for wealtj. Early 13th cen raids from desert weakened the kingdom and it soon collapsed.

Mali Empire emerged as power in west Africa.

Sundiata

the lion prince. reigned Mali empire from 1230-1255. made allies with local rulers and assembled lsrge army dominated by cavalry and gained rep. for courage in battle.

Around 1235, consolidated his hold on Mali Empire, which expanded to include Ghana as well as neighbors around rthe Senegal and Niger rivers.

Mali Empire trade

benefitted from sub-Saharan trade even more than Ghana. 13th to late 15th cent, Mali controlled and taxed almost all trade passing through west Africa. Capital city of Niani attracted merchants seeking to enter the fold trade. Market cities like Timbuktu, Gao, Jenne became prosperoous centers featuring stone buildings. rulers of Mali converted to Islam, like Ghana, and provided protection, lodging, and comforts for Muslim merchants from the north. Encouraged but not enforced Islam.

Masna Musa

Sundiata's grand-nephew, illustrated significance of trade and Islam for west Africa. Ruled from 1312-1337, high point of Mali Empire. Mansa Musa observed Islamic tradition by making his pilgramage to Mecca in 1324-1325.

Mansa Musa and Islam

MM drew great inspiration from his pilgramage to Mecca, upon arrival bacl to Mali, took his religion even more seriouslty. Built mosques, primarily in trading cities visited by Muslim merchants, and sent students to study with Islamic scholars in No. Africa.

Mali Decline

Within a century after MM rule, Malie in serioud decline. Factions crippled central government, provinces seceeded from the empire, military pressures came from neighbors. By late 15th cent., Songhay Empire overcame Mali.

Mali Influence

Mali rulers and Mansa Musa est tradition of centralized government continued by Songhay Empire, and ensured prominent plcde for Islam in west Africa.

Indian Ocean trade and Islamic States in East Africa

Indian Ocean trade linked coastal east Africa to larger trading world.
By 2nd Century CE Bantu speakers populated much of east africa and introduced agriculture, cattle herding, and complex societies governed by small local states. As pop increased, expanded to coast. Coast dwellers supplemented agricultural production with ocean fishing and maritime trade. Coast dwellers founder Swahili society.

The Swahili

Swahili = arabic for coasters, referencing those who engaged in trade along the east African coast. Dominated east coast from nth in Mogadishu to south in Kilwa. Spoke swahili, Bantu language with pieces or Arabic. All along the coast communication and similar development.

Swahili religion

By 10th century, Swahili ppl adopted Islam and interacted w Muslim traders from other places.

Swahili city states

By 11th and 12th centuries coastal east africans wealthy bc of trade. Local chiefs controlled and taxed trade in their jurisdictions, so gained authority in influence in their communities. Trade concentrated in certian convenient or sheltered port cities such as Kilwa. Each site became a powerful city state governed by kings who supervised trade and organized public life in region. Cities developed, by 12th century Swahili ppls began to contstruct builfings of coral. 15th century main Swahili towns had stone mosques. Swahili elites dressed in fine silk and cotton clothes.

Kilwa

one of the busiest city states on the east African coast. Earliest Bantu inhabitants relied on fishinf aand engaged in little trading (800-1000 CE). Next two centuries imported stoneware from other east african regions and began to rely on agricultural to support their growing populations.

By early 13th century Kilwa so wealthy that copper coins were used for economic transactions and many multistory stone buildings were built. Prosperous between 1300-1505.

Population of around 12000, wealth and prosperity due to Indian ocean trade networks. Influence of trade passed on to interior east and central africa.

Kingdom of Zimbabwe

5th and 6th centuries inhabitanted with many wood buildings known as zimbabwes, by ninth century zimbabwes were built from stone, and they developed a complex society that could invest in expensive construction. kingdom streched from outskirts of Swahili societies deep into south central Africa.

Great Zimbabwe

early 13th cent, stone complex arose near Nyanda, Was a city of stone towers, palaces, and public buildings and served as capitsal of the large Kingdom of Zimbabwe. At greatest extent, 15th cent., 18000 living in the city.

Great Zimbabwe Trade

Kings in Great Zimbabwe controlled and taxed trade from interior to coastal regions. Control over trade lead to alliances with local leaders and profits. Indian Ocean trade generated wealth that financed the organization of city-states on the coast and large kingdoms on the interior of Africa.

Islam in east africa

Ruling elites and wealthy merchants converted to Islam. Continued to observe regional cultural and religious traditions to provide cultural leadership in their societes. Adopting Islam led to cultural foundation for close cooperation eith Muslim merchants and trade via indian ocean. Islam also legitimzed rule bc rulers gained support from other Islamic states in southern Asia, and opened the door for more diplomatic relations.

State and Empires in Mesoamerica and North America:

Mesoamerica-entered era of war and conquest in 8th century C.E.

Teotihuacan

argest early city in Mesoamerica. Had accumulated wealth. When it declined, attacked by less prosperous/well organized forces from countryside and northern mexico.

TheToltecs and the Mexica

most prominent of peoples fighting for power if Mesoamerica and the architects of the Aztec Empire. Under Totelcs and Mexica Mexico came under unified rule, they settled in Tula, they tapped waters from River Tula to irrigate crops that supported people.
They had powerful army, fortresses, their capital became wealthy city.

Tula

became important center of weaving, pottery, obsidian work (using volcanic material to make things like tools). They imported goods from other parts of Mesoamerica.
1125 C.E. civil strife with different ethnic groups.migrant groups entered Tula. Strife with various groups destroyed Toltec state. By end of 12th century the Toltecs no longer dominated Mesoamerica.
950-1150 high of toltecs

Mexica

often called Aztecs. Migrants. Dominated the alliance that built Aztec Empire in 15th century.
Aztec name derives from Aztlan=the place of the seven legendary caves.

Mexica (badguy migrants)

kidnapped women seized land cultivated by others, moved around central mexico causing conflict.
The Mexica settled on an island in Lake Texcoco and founded the city that would become their capital Tenochtitlan.-lake offered fish, frogs, waterfowl, tenochitlan 1345

developed chinampa system of agriculture

Developed an irrigation system when dry season. Using canals from lake to plots they could grow crops year round.
Lake also provided water protection on all sides.

The Aztec Empire=

Early 15th century Mexica overcame neighbors, demanded tributeImperial Expansion Campaigns- Itzcoatl and Motecuzoma also known as Moctezuma and Montezuma, they took over Oaxaca. Emerging as Mexican empire.
Joined forces with two neighboring cities to create triple alliance that guided Aztec empire. Main objective of alliance was to collect tribute.

GOvernment and Military:

No centralized bureaucracy or administration. No standing army or military guards uncoordinated military, still powerful. Assembled when needed people. Military seen as ruthless and punitive when they needed to be. Military respected and powerful.

Mexica society-hierarchical:

clear division nobles and non nobles males seen as potential warriors military elite honored. Most military elite of Noble birth warriors received land grants, wealth for service.

Mexica women

no role in politics, high honors if mother of warriors,prominent in market place, main role motherhood and homemaking.

Priests-

Priests elite class. Special education. Read omens abd explained forces that drove world-influential as advisors to Mexican rulers.

Cultivaters and Slaves

Most Mexica population were commoners. Worked in chinampas and fields allocated to their families by community groups called calpulli (groups initially with common ancestral past, in calpullis were families who lived together in communities that governed themselves and allocated property to individual families-gave tributes to state agents.

Artisans and Merchants:

Skilled artisans (gld, silver, cotton textiles, other items elite liked) were considered prestigious.
Merchants: long distance trader-supplied elite with exotic goods, provided political and military intelligence about lands they visited, but they were often robbed.

Mexica Culture

developed their own traditions and culture (inherited language, so no language change)
Ball game in formal court
Complicated calendar

Mexica Gods:

Absorbed religious beliefs common to mesoamerica.
Two of their Principal Gods-Tezcatlipoca-”the smoking mirror, ” the giver and taker of life, patron deity of warriors and Quetzalcoatl “the feathered Serpent”-supported arts, crafts and agriculture.

Ritual Bloodletting:

Like predecessors, the Mexica believed that their gods had created world through acts of individual sacrifice, By letting blood flow gods had given earth its moisture. People extreme sacrificial blood letting to honor gods. Mexica priests did this regularly.

Huitzilopochtli:

Sacrificial killing of human victims, a ritual. Thought essential to worlds survival in devotion to their GodHuitzilopochtli and military success depended on it, as well as crops.. Sacrificed criminals or people given by community as tributes or from captured warriors.

Peoples and societies of North America:

Beyond Mexico, people of north america had rich traditions. Hunting fishing, edible plants, people in coastal regions atre fish, interior regions like plains, hunted animals-small scale communities formed due to limited food resources.

Pueblo and Navajo Societies

Larger societies because of agriculture. Pueblo and Navajo
tapped rivers to irrigate crops, hunted, they did suffer drought and famine by 700 CE built permanent stone and adobe buildings.

Iroquois Peoples:

Large scale agricultural societies in woodlands east of the Mississippi river grew maize and beans Lived in settled communities, surrounded by wooden palisades (fence like structures) for protection. 800CE
1400 CE five Iroquois Nations emerged from Owasco society (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca)

Owasco people

1000CE Owasco people in what is now Upstate NY

Women

in charge of villages and longhouses-where several families lived together and supervised farming

Men

-hunting, fishing, war.

Mound-Building Peoples

Easetern half of North America, structures in woodlands, mounds for ceremonies, ritual, platforms for dwellings, burial

Cahokia-

largest surviving mound in Illinois

Trade

People north of Mexico, no writing, so only info about society comes from archaeological discovery. burial sites suggests mound people had different social class because of grave foods of different value discovered. trade probable by canoe, on various waterways stones because of various items found in different parts suggesting from different places, sharp cutting edges,copper, seashells cahokia most likely center of trade and networks linking many areas.

States and Empires in South America:

South American peoples had no script and no tradition of writing before the arrival of Spanish invaders. Importance of archaeological evidence.

Coming of Incas:

After disappearance of Chavin and Moche Societies, separate states began to organize in Andean South America. They didn't really clash much, controlled their own areas. In mountain areas or highlands around Lake.

Chicuito:

The kingdom that dominated the highlands region after 12th century around lake Titicaca. Cultivation of potatoes and herding of llamas alpacas (meat, woll, hides, dung)largest domesticated animals in americas in 16th century. Elaborate terraced fields built with stone retaining walls, cultivators harvested coca leaves provided energy for farming is a stimulant.

Chimu:

In lowlands powerful kingdom. Great irrigation systems abundant maize in lowlands, wealth

CLass

Clear distinctions social classes.

Chanchan

capital city, big population, massive brick buildings.
Neighborhoods in community, well defined social order, individual clan supervised affairs of its members and coordinated with their clans.
After about 30 years, fell to the Incas.
Incas spoke Quechua language.

Inca Empire:

migrants. Settled in the highlands, around Lake Titicaca in mid 13 century, At first lived as one people.
Inca ruler, Pachacuti “earth shaker” fierce warrior-inspired stones to stand up and fight enemies, fierce battle turned forces on chimu gained control of chimu and irrigation system
By late 15th century the huge Incan empire was the largest state ever built in South America.
Military and administrative elite.conquered people served as their soldiers and staffed bureaucracy, maintained order by negotiating with unhappy conquered people with choice land and goods, Toward end of his reign, as his son was taking over, he created a system of government-taxes to support Inca rulers, stockhouses to store excess agriculture and crafts, roads that helped military and government officials travel.

Quipu:

mnemonic aid (memory device) to keep track of their responsibilities (they didn't have a writing system). Consisted of small cords of various lengths and colors all suspended from one thick cord. Tied knots to remember things

Cuzco:

administrative, religious, ceremonial center of Inca Empire. Because Pachacuti retired there.

"Obsidian serpent" Itzcoatl

1428-1440

Montecuzoma I

1440-1469

Itz and Monte

took Oaxaca ppopulated it with colonists--Became a part of defense of empire
CONQUered cities in high high plateau areas
Allied with Texcoco and Tlacopen to create triple alliance that guided aztecs (1428)

Inca Roads:

extensive road system, roads linked north to south, best ever constructed roads before modern times.

Inca Society:
trade

Trade: no large class of merchants or artisans. Did Not allow individuals to become independent merchants. No market economy. Not The skilled craft workers prominent in Mexica

Ruling Elites:

Min classes in society: Rulers, aristocrats, patients, peasant cultivators of common birth
Cheif ruler-A god descended from the sun.god-king owned everything absolute infallible ruler. Retained prestige even after death.

Aristocrats and Priests:

privilege-wore large ear spools-big ears-priestess often came from royal families-great influence over society.

Peasants:

cultivaters, Lived in communities called ayllu-like mexican capulli several families living together, sharing resources, crops, work. Supported themselves didn't pay tribute but instead worked on state lands for artsitorats their yield supported elite and extra went to state storehouses compulsory work to work in roads, buildings, irrigation systems if man, women work textile pottery jewelry.

Inca religion:

enerated sun as major deity called Inti. recognised, stars, moon planet rain, other natural focus as divine. Pacahcuti showed special favor to Viracocha, creator of world and humankind

Moral thought:

concept of sin as violation of established social or natural order life after death, reward or punishment based on quality fo life, rituals of confession and penance, priests absolved sins and returned them to good grace of gods.

The societies of Oceania:

Aboriginal people of australia hunting and gathering. When European mariners arrived in 16th century, found sizable population hierarchy, chief rulers.
New Guinea: People herded swine and cultivate root crops
People of Torres Strait gardening
Aboriginal peoples of northern australia nomadic foraging society until Eurpoeans migrated to australia in 19th and 20th century.

Trade:

Nomadic people. Did not travel on trade routes but They exchanged surplus foods when they met during seasonal migrations. One aboriginal group to another, baler and oyster pearl shells most popular trade items made jewelry spears boomerangs, furs, skins fibers.

Cultural and religious traditions:

didnt really spread from one group to another,
Aboriginal people-paid attention to nature, rocks, mountains forests, body of water, religious rituals to ensure supply of animals, plant life, and water. Local matters.

The development of Pacific Island societies:

After 100, CE Ploynesians inhabiting larger Pacific Islands population grows

Trade between Island Groups:

egional trade of useful good, decorative items, foods, trade helped groups live harmoniously with each other. Trade brought some groups together, intermariage, political and social relationships.

Long DIstance Voyaging:

To-New Zealand, when Maiori people lived.
To-Hawaii and polynesioan societies

Population Growth:

TRaveled by sea, islanders throughout pacific ocean create agriculture and fishing societies and this helped them to achieve varied crops, learn to keep various animals. Fishponds created in Hawaii to harvest fish. Agriculture and fishing communities led to population expansion in Oceania.