Anthropology Exam 1

Anthropology

The comparative and holistic study of human biology and culture

(Human) Paleontology

Study of human primate fossil record

Osteology

Study of the human skeleton

Porotic Hyperostosis

Skeletal markings on the cranium. Signs of iron deficiency. Example of Osteology

Harris Lines

Small lines on arm and leg bones, due to lack of proper nutrition during developmental years (age 0-7). Example of Osteology

Human Variation

Differences among humans / different living groups

Anthropometry

Study of weights and measurements of human beings

Spanish conquest of Peru (Hypoxia)

European women couldn't hold a pregnancy for over 80 years in old Peru capital, though Inca women can. Capital was eventually moved. This was because Inca people had larger hearts and lungs to adapt to high altitude, so they didn't get hypoxia (Altitude sickness). Example of Anthropometry

Archaeology

Study of human cultural remains

Grave Goods / Burial sites (Neanderthal, Lascaux Cave, Etowah Indian Mounds, Aztec Burials)

Indicates social complexity or hierarchy in a society, like a person's status. Example of Archaeology

Linguistic Anthropology

Study of human language

Glottochronology

History of when languages began to diverge. Dating the divergence of languages from their common sources. Part of linguistic anthropology

Cultural Anthropology

The comparative and holistic study of human culture

Comparative

2 or more units of analysis are compared

Holistic

Eclectic. All perspectives must be examined to explain human phenomena

Beri Beri in Thailand

Thai villagers after WW2 were getting Beri Beri, which is due to thiamine deficiency. However, rice, their primary diet, has lots of thiamine (doesn't make sense). The cause of the Beri Beri was the fermented fish oil they were using in their rice. Example of holistic analysis

Participant Observation

Anthropologists live with the people and participate in their culture

Chagnon and Yanamamo

Yanamamo are a tribe in the Amazon. Chagnon stayed among them to learn their culture. He asked for geneology, specifically familial names. He later found out that the names for dead ancestors was false. This is because in their culture, it is rude to talk about dead ancestors. Example of Participant Observation.

Ethnography

Long extended description / study about a group of people / culture

Ethnohistory

Study of cultures (some of which no longer exist) by examining historical records

Emic Perspective

Insider's perspective

Etic Perspective

Outsider's perspective

Elephantiasis in India

Elephantiasis is a swelling condition due to a disease spread by mosquitos (The etic perspective). People in India believed that the condition was divine punishment due to infertility (not only marital). The offense could've happened in another lifetime. Those with the condition were shunned and ostracized. Inadvertently decreased the spread. This was the emic perspective, which in case, was incorrect. Example of emic / etic perspectives.

Attributes of Culture

Culture is learned, shared, dynamic, an interrelated system, and is our primary means of adaptation

Culture is Learned

Culture is acquired, taught by other people, not biological. 3 primary modes of transmission. One attribute of culture

Vertical transmission

Culture is passed from the independent to the dependent (parents to children). Like religion, kinship, and marriage practices. One of the modes of transmission of culture

Horizontal transmission

Culture is acquired between peers. Like music preferences, dress style, and hairstyle. One of the modes of transmission of culture

Oblique transmission

Culture is transmitted from one to many, through the media, or through advertisements. Examples are MLK and Hitler. One of the modes of transmission of culture

Clean Revolution / Listerine

People in the US didn't care much about hygiene. People didn't bath everyday, no mouthwash or deodorant. Advertising really helped make personal hygiene part of everyday life. Listerine advertising was what jumpstarted this. Caused infant mortality rates to drop. Example of oblique cultural transmission

Culture is Shared

Everyone participates in culture. It is egalitarian must be transmitted from one person to the next. One attribute of culture

Culture is Dynamic

Culture is always changing. For example, 9/11 and airports, technological change (snowballing effect) affecting language. Hair and dress styles changing, primarily shared horizontally through peers. One attribute of culture

Ogburn and Cultural Lag

Things culturally that change slowly, like core beliefs. These are spread vertically (like religion). Example of dynamic culture, just slower

Culture is an interrelated system

Idea that cultural traits are not random occurrences. They are mostly adjusted to, or consistent with, the other cultural traits found within the group. Subsistence, tech, economics, values, religion, etc are all connected. One sphere will influence another. One attribute of culture

Social psychology and cognitive consistency

Essentially, kids detect inconsistencies. Part of culture being an interrelated system

Hysterctomies in SoCal / Sue Fisher's Study

Public health clinics in SoCal were serving peoples in need. All women interviewed had cancer. Found that non-hispanic white women had better healthcare / were better informed than hispanic women. 3 treatments to cancer treatement, conization, cryosurgery, and hysterctomy. Hispanic women had higher rates of getting hysterctomy (most invasive) treatment. This could be because the government would help pay for hysterctomy. Regardless, this study helped develop / strengthen informed consent laws. Example of one sphere influencing another / culture being an interrelated system

Culture is our primary means of adaptation

One attribute of culture. Has 3 avenues, genetic, developmental, and cultural

Genetic Avenue

Example of the genetic avenue is the rise of sickle cell anemia. Mutation that turns red blood cells into a sickle shape. Offers immunity to malaria. Genetically passed onto offspring. Example of one way that culture is our primary means of adaptation

Developmental Avenue

Adaptation that occurs when a child is born and raised in a particular environment. Occurs ages 0-7. One avenue that shows that culture is our primary means of adaptation

Enhanced Vasoconstriction / Dilation Ability

Increased blood flow to keep body parts warmer. Tested eskimo and lower 48 for body temps in cold temperatures. Cold adapted people (eskimos) had higher blood temps. Similar to the Inca adapting to the high altitudes in Peru to develop immunity to Hypoxia. Example of the developmental avenue of culture being our primary means of adaptation

Adaptation

Any trait or condition that maximizes an organism's ability to meet its basic physiological needs, and to successfully reproduce

Cultural Avenue

In cultural anthropology, can expand "adaptation" to include "satisfy basic needs and wants, psychological, social, emotional, as well as physical". One avenue that shows that culture is our primary means of adaptation

Ayahuasca

Hallucinogenic beverage. Causes someone to trip for an hour. Tribes uses it because it produces visions and for ritual purification. This is the emic perspective. In reality, Ayahuasca cleanses intestinal parasites, which is one of the biggest threats to tribal peoples in the Amazon. This is the etic perspective Amazonians believe that Ayahuasca allows them to see spirits. When the people defecate, you can see the intestinal parasites come out, but the Amazonians believe that it is the spirits being cleansed. Example of the cultural avenue of culture being our primary means of adaptation.

Latent versus Manifest Function

Latent = Etic | Manifest = Emic | Part of the culture avenue of culture being our primary means of adaptation

Pintupi Peoples

Located in Western Australia. Lived there until the 1960s. Extremely harsh climate, incredible knowledge of the environment, lack of rainfall, seasonal adaptations (followed the available water). Due to knowledge of environment and "simple technology", they were able to survive. Example of the culture avenue of culture being our primary means of adaptation

Ethnocentrism

believe that one's own culture / way of doing things is superior

Xenophobia

Fear of things foreign / alien

Cultural Relativism

See/view culture the way that the natives see them. See it from the emic perspective

Values

Emotionally charged preferences

Pre-marital chastity

Example of cultural values

Dowry

Something of great value comes from the bride, given to the groom

Bride Price

Something of great value is given to the bride from the groom

Bodily Functions, America vs Japan

Japanese commercials are more comfortable showing more bodily features, like dancing pieces of poop, and a giant condom as a smoke stack for a condom factory. Nude bathing as well. These are examples of differing cultural values

Many values are idiosyncratic

Dependent upon the individual, e.g vegetarianism

Values are often highly Divisive in nature

Examples: Suffrage for Native Americans. Pro Life vs pro choice. Capital punishment yes or no. Part of values being idiosyncratic

Core Values can be very Ethnocentric

Example:

Tasmania: Native Tasmanians were treated as less than human by Australians. Part of values being idiosyncratic and ethnocentric

Values tend to reflect, or be consistent with, other areas of culture

Examples:
Extended postpartum sexual taboos - Couple abstains from sex for a while after birth of a child (common in societies who lack protein sources)
Horticulture and Kwashiorkor. Part of values being idiosyncratic and values reflecting other areas of culture

Horticulture and Kwashiorkor. Part of values being idiosyncratic and values reflecting other areas of culture

Values change

Examples: Integrity / faith in the federal governent

Types of Culture Change

Includes innovation and diffusion

Invention

A novel rearrangement or use of preexisting knowledge or technologies. Intentional. People are trying to create something. Type of innovation

Sports, Airplane, Warfare Tech

American football and baseball are derived from a past sport, rugby and cricket. The plane was built upon past knowledge. Warfare technology is a series of inventions built off of each other. Examples of invention

Discovery

A wholly new technology or knowledge, becoming aware of phenomena. Type of innovation

Microwave, Pasteurization, Fermentation, Oil, Nuclear Energy, DNA, Penicillin

Examples of discovery

Innovation

Any new practice or custom, tool, or element of technology, value, or principle of knowledge that becomes widely embraced by a significant number of individuals in a given society. Basis of all culture change, the ultimate source. Type of culture change

Diffusion

The spreading of cultural traits over time and geographical space. Sometimes modified to fit the culture that is borrowing the item. Type of culture change

100% American

Shows that a lot of things in US daily life comes from other cultures and countries. Example of diffusion

Coke

American culture diffusing into other counties. Example of diffusion

Why are culture traits adopted?

Relative advantage and compatibility - Does the new trait have an advantage over the one before, and is it compatible / easily modifiable

Diffusion of the horse

Example of culture trait being adopted. Horses came from Europeans overseas. Native Americans started using them because it made hunting buffalo easier

Spirtism

Semi religious movement. Began in mid-19th century France. Founded by Alan Kardec. Effort to reconcile Science and Religion. Mixture of the Christian moral code, with reincarnation and belief in contact with the spirits of the dead. Imported to Brazil at the turn of the century

Why did Spiritism take off in Brazil?

Religious Syncretism is big in Brazil (The blending of different religions). African medicine and spirit possession and folk Catholicism was already present in Brazil. All this "spirit lore" existed before spiritism came along. Spiritism just added another layer / expanded it

Dr. Fritz

Spirit of German Doctor who died in 1917

Maricio Malgalhaes

spirit medium of Dr. Fritz, only has a fourth grade education, does all of his work for free / all work is funded

Spirit Surgeries Results

47% of the illnesses were healed completely. 23% were helped significantly. Rest had no effect. Overall satisfaction with experience. Any symptomatic (ex migraines) illness was treated well by the surgeries. Asymptomatic illnesses were not treated / the treatment had no effect. Lifelong illnesses too.

Why were Spirit Treatments Successful?

Extensive use of ritual preparation. Each person is given instructions on what to do before, during, and after the treatment. Though the whole thing could just be a placebo effect. Influencing change in the body through the mind

Functionalism

Cultural traits generally have an adaptive function, long history in social science

Hopi and High Mesas

The Hopi's adaptive function was moving their homes to high mesas for better defendability against opposing tribes. Example of functionalism / adaptive function

Adaptationist Trap

Tendency to see everything as adaptive, over-use of functionalism, "just-so" / "just because" stories. Some traits are simply neutral

AJ Ozborn Hypocalcemia skeletal remains

AJ Ozborn found skeletal remains indicating hypocalcemia. People at the time were tempering their clay with crushed shell. Ozborn suggested that this was to improve Calcium in the diet. Problem was, you don't eat pottery. Also no Osteological evidence. They just used shell just cuz. Example of adaptationist trap / traits being neutral

Marvin Harris, Aztec Cannibalism

Marvin Harris believed that the Aztecs did cannibalism due to lack of protein in the diet. Ortiz de Montellano refuted. Talked about Chinampas (farms) which produced a lot of beans, a good source of protein. Also lots of seafood and meat. Additionally, very few Aztecs ate humans, only did it ceremonially. Example of traits being neutral / adaptationist trap

Maladaptive Behaviors

Any behavior which brings harm, retards, or reduces an organism's ability to meet its physiological needs and/or successfully reproduce

Subincision

Extreme form of circumcision practiced (probably done to reduce population) among Australian Aboriginal groups. Rendered 70% of male population infertile. This also wasn't even necessary because of Polyandry (one woman with multiple husbands), and you couldn't have children out of wedlock. Example of maladaptive traits

Why do maladaptive traits exist?

Some traits may have originally been adaptive, but became maladaptive due to changing circumstances

Tapirape Tribe

Had major population limiting practices. Population was almost wiped out due to disease, but they still kept the practices. Example of traits originally being adaptive but becoming maladaptive due to changing circumstance

Conformity

Natural selection has embedded in us the need to conform. One of the basic cognitive design elements

Some traits were never adaptive. People just did it to conform or for status

Examples: Corsets: Women couldn't breathe / caused health defects | Chinese foot binding: Women wanted feet 3-5 inches long. Painful and couple cripple | Trypanasome Parasite: Males would consume a beetle to act as a "natural viagra". These beetles carried the Trypanasome Parasite, which would cause chagas disease | Aztec Tooth Carving: Teeth were carved to be like razors, and holes were drilled to be filled with precious stones. Makes the teeth useless and can cause bacterial infections

Different Ways to measure complexity

Subsistence patterns (hunting and gathering) and sociopolitical structure (band, tribe, chiefdom)

Hunter Gatherers or Forgers (Bands)

Usually small groups of people. Related along kinship lines. Free ranging and autonomous. No political structure above them. No domesticated plants or animals. Egalitarian, though individuals did differ in regards to status. Status is achieved, not given by birth. Leaders tend to be those most skilled at a particular task

Hunter gatherer myths

"man the hunter". Though hunting was important, majority of the caloric intake came from gathering, done by the women. "Hard life". Not always true. Ju/hoansi only needed to work 11-15 hours a week to provide everything for their family

Hunter gatherer world view

Based in Animism

Animism

Belief that everything in the environment is animated or alive, possessing a spirit aware of what humans do

Animism Examples

Urubu people would harvest beetles, and leave offerings for the spirit of the beetle. Same with plants

Tribe

Differences in scale. Tribes have larger numbers, but they can range from 100s to tens of thousands. Based on more than one kin group, usually consisting of clans. More than one settlement. Primarily egalitarian. Either horticulturalists or pastoralists.

Tribe World View

Animism and Animitism

Animitism

Belief in a single abstract force

Approximate Causes of Warfare and Mobilization (Modern nation states)

Control of resources, idealistic differences, alliance based, political autonomy

Approximate Causes of Warfare and Mobilization (Tribes)

Revenge and status

Ultimate causes of warfare and mobilization

Xenophobia, mistrust of the unfamiliar

Pastoralism

Usually refer to nomadic, primary food is livestock, sheep, goats, cattle, and milk. Moved a lot. Good example are the Basseri

Transhumance

Still pastoralists but seasonal migrations only