Bio 214: Unit 1

hydrophobic

* not easy
* substance that do not dissolve in water
* molecules are nonpolar or neutral

Anatomy

is the study of structure

* shape

Physiology

is the study of function

inspection

viewing

palpation

feeling

auscultation

listening

percussion

tapping

cadaver dissection

cutting and separating human body tissues to reveal tissue relationship

comparative anatomy

study of multiple species to learn about form, function, and evolution

exploratory surgery

cut open and check inside

medical imaging

- viewing the inside of the body without surgery

radiology

branch of medicine concerned with imaging

radiography (x-ray)

* oldest
* dense tissue appears white
* over half of all medical imaging

Radiopaque substances

* injection or swallowed
* fills hollow structures
* blood vessels
* intestinal tract

computed tomography (CT Scan)

* Formerly called a CAT scan
* Low-intensity X-ray and computer analysis
* slice-type image
* increased sharpness of an image

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

* superior quality to CT scan
* best for soft tissue

NMRI

nuclear magnetic resonance (imaging)

Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan)

* assesses metabolic state of tissue


* distinguishes tissue most active at a given moment
* mechanics: inject radioactively labeled glucose

Sonography (Ultrasound)

* second oldest and second most widely used
* high frequency sound waves echo from internal organs
* avoids harmful x-rays

Gross anatomy

Study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye

* overall

Histology

examination of tissues with microscope

* function that cells and tissues give organs
* cells and tissues

Cytology

study of structure and function of cells

Levels of Human Structure (most complex to most simple)

most complex

* organisms
* organ system
* organs
* tissues
* cells
* molecules
* atoms

most simple

situs inversus

left to right reversal of organ placement

organization

living things exhibit a higher level of organization than nonliving things

cellular composition

living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells

metabolism

internal chemical reations

responsiveness

ability to sense and react to stimuli (irritability or excitability)

movement

or organism and/or of substances within the organism

cells

functional and structural unit of life

development

differentiation and growth

reproduction

producing copies or themselves; passing genes to offspring

evolution

changes in genes from one generation to the next

aging

all changes occurring in the body with the passage of time: growth, development, and degenerative changes that occur later in life

senescence

the degeneration that occurs in organ systems after the age of peak functional efficiency

characteristics of senescence

* an important issue for American healthcare
* personal health and fitness practices can lessen the effects
* The senescence of one organ system typically leads to the senescence of other organs systems

best ways to slow down senescence

* exercise improves quality of life by maintaining endurance, strength, and joint mobility
* reduces incidence and severity of hypertension, osteoporosis, obesity, and diabetes mellitus

resistance

exercise reduces bone fractures

endurance

exercises reduce body fat and increase cardiac output an oxygen uptake

* 3 to 5, 20-60 min periods of exercise per week=raise heart rate 60%-90%

life expectancy

average length of life in a given population

* has increased substantially over the last century

life span

maximum age attainable by humans

* has not increased for many centuries

what happens to organs/brain function after death

* some organs function for an hour after heart stops
* brain death is lack of cerebral activity (flat EEG), reflexes, heartbeat, and respiration for 30 minutes to 24 hours
* death usually occurs as a failure of particular organs followed by a cascade of other organ failures

homeostasis

maintaining a relatively constant internal environment

negative feedback with homeostasis

* allows for dynamic equilibrium within a limited range around a set point
* the response is opposite to the stimulus

receptor

structure that senses change in the body (stretch receptors above heart that monitor blood pressure)

integrating (control) center

control center that processes the sensory information, “makes a decision” and directs the response

effector

cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis

self-amplifying cycle (positive feedback)

* leads to greater change in the same direction
* response is the same as the stimulus
* feedback loop is repeated - change produces more change

normal way of producing rapid changes examples (positive feedback)

* childbirth


* blood clotting
* protein digestion
* generation of nerve signals

gradient

a difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between two points

what things flow down gradients

* matter and energy flow down gradients
* chemicals flow down concentration gradients
* charged partials flow down electrical gradients
* heat flows down thermal gradients

how does gradients flow

* movement in the opposite direction is “up the gradient”
* movement in this direction requires spending metabolic energy

element

simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties

atom

smallest piece of an element with the chemical and physical properties of the element

atomic number

number of an element, number of protons in its nucleus

what elements are in the body

* oxygen
* carbon
* hydrogen
* nitrogen
* calcium
* phosphorus

minerals definition

inorganic elements extracted from soil by plants and passed up the food chain to humans

what do minerals do for your body

* constitute about 4% of body weight
* important for body structure (Ca crystals in teeth, bones)
* important for enzymes’ function
* electrolytes

electrolytes

* mineral salts needed for nerve and muscle function
* substances that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting electric currents

importance of electrolyte

* Chemical reactivity, osmotic effects, electrical excitability of nerve and muscle
* Electrolyte balance is one of the most important considerations in patient care (imbalances can lead to coma or cardiac arrest)

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ion

charged particle (atom or molecule) with unequal number of protons and electron

* opposite charges are attracted to each other

ionization

transfer of electron from one atom to another

anion

particle that gains electrons (negative)

cation

particle that loses electron (positive)

chemical bonds

hold atoms together within a molecule or attract one molecule to another

ionic bond

* attractions between anions and cations (NaCl)
* electrons donated from one atom to another
* easily broken by water

nonpolar bond

electrons shared equally (strongest bond)

polar bonds

electrons shared unequally (spend more time near oxygen)

hydrogen bond

**a weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atom in another**

* Water molecules are attracted to each other by hydrogen bonds
* Large molecules (DNA and proteins) shaped by hydrogen bonds within them

molecule

chemical particle composed of two or more atoms united by a covalent chemical bond

compound

molecule composed of two or more different elements

molecular formula

identifies constituent elements and how many atoms of each are present (C6H12O)

mixtures

physically blended but not chemically combined

* body fluids are complex mixtures of chemicals
* most mixtures in our bodies consist of chemicals dissolved or suspended in water
* water is 50% to 75% of body weight (age, sex, fat content)

solvency

ability to dissolve other chemicals

* water = universal solvent

hydrophilic

* easy


* substance that dissolve in water
* molecules must be polarized or charged

is metabolic reactions dependent on the solvency of water? true or false

true

Solution

consists of particles called solutes with a more abundant substance (usually water) called the solvent

solute

* there is less of
* examples, H+, glucose, amino acid

solvent

* more of
* usually water

acid

is a proton donor (releases H+ ions in water)

* more H+ = acid

base

is a proton acceptor (accepts H+ ions)

* many bases release OH-
* receives and removes H+ from solution

pH

measures derived from the molarity of H+

pH is neutral

H+ = OH-

pH less than 7

* acidic solution
* H+ > OH-

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pH greater than 7

* basic solution
* OH- > H+

energy

capacity to do work

kinetic energy

energy of motion

potential energy

energy stored in an object, but not currently doing work

chemical energy

potential energy in molecular bonds

organic chemistry

the study of compounds containing carbon

4 categories of carbon compounds

carbohydrated

lipids

protiens

nucleic acids

macromolecules

very large organic molecules with high molecular weights

polymers

macromolecules made of a repetitive series of identical or similar subunits (monomers)

polymerization

jointing monomers to form a polymer

hydrolysis

breaking apart macromolecules with water

* chemical digestion

dehydration synthesis

removing water from macromolecules

disaccharide

sugar made from monosaccharides

three important disaccharides

sucrose

lactose

maltose

polysaccharides

long chains of monosaccharides

three polysaccharaides

glycogen

starch

cellulose