pysch 4

Prosocial Behavior

Any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person

Altruism

The desire to help another person even if it involves a cost to the helper, with no benefit to oneself

three motives underlying prosocial behavior

1) evolutionary psychology - pass on genes

2) social exchange theory - maximize rewards, minimize costs

3) empathy-altruism hypothesis - empathy and compassion lead to selfless giving

evolutionary psychology

pass on genes

social exchange theory

maximize rewards, minimize costs

empathy-altruism hypothesis

empathy and compassion lead to selfless giving

Darwin's Theory of Evolution and Natural Selection

Natural selection favors genes that promote the survival of the individual as well as the species

Kin Selection

The idea that behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection

genetic relatives

Natural selection should favor altruistic acts directed toward

group level

Natural selection also operates at a

Natural selection also operates at a group level

People who have traits that make them more likely to survive are more likely to reproduce and pass on those traits

3 Fallacies Regarding Evolutionary Psychology

Evolution has foresight

Naturalistic fallacy

Deterministic fallacy

Evolution has foresight

It does not; it is completely random, unplanned

Naturalistic fallacy

What is natural is right and "good" - not true, ex., natural disasters

Deterministic fallacy

Things are inevitable because they are natural; genes influence behavior directly - not always, environment can influence gene expression

Norm of Reciprocity

The expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future; Encourages cooperation

Social Exchange Theory: The Costs and Rewards of Helping

Behavior motivated by desire to maximize rewards and minimize costs

Social Exchange: The Rewards of Helping

Investment in future-Someone will help us when we need it

•Relief of bystander distress

•Gain rewards -Social approval -Increased feelings of self-worth

Social Exchange: The Costs of Helping

Physical danger

-Pain

-Embarrassment

-Time

Social Exchange Theory and Altruism

Social Exchange Theory argues that true altruism does not exist -People help when the benefits outweigh the costs

Empathy:

Put oneself in the shoes of another person-When we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person purely for altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain

Mirror neurons

are types of brain cells that respond equally when we perform an action and when we witness someone else performing the same action

Empathy-altruism hypothesis

Powerful feelings of empathy and compassion lead to selfless giving

Altruistic Personality

The qualities that cause an individual to help others in a wide variety of situations

Individual differences in personality are not the only predictors of helping. Other factors:

-Situational pressures

-Gender

-Culture

-Current mood

Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior

Men are more likely to perform chivalrous and heroic acts, women are more likely to be helpful in long-term relationships that involve greater commitment.

When will we help in-group and out-group members?

In-group helping: help when we feel empathy

Out-group helping: help when it furthers own self-interests

Religious people

-more likely to help other people who share their beliefs

-no more helpful than nonreligious people when it comes to helping strangers (e.g., donating blood, tipping)

The Bystander Effect

Tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present-Occurs when there is a diffusion of responsibility

Definition of Aggression

intentional behavior aimed at causing either physical or psychological pain

True aggression involves

intent

Instrumental aggression - sports; hunting

-there is an intention to hurt the other person but the hurting takes place as a means to some goal other than causing pain

Hostile aggression - assault; murder; gossip

stems from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain or injury

Gender differences: Males are more aggressive

Males behave aggressively to establish dominance over other males and secure status

Testosterone

Greater testosterone linked to greater aggression-But correlational findings, not causal

Culture and Aggression

According to the text, most social psychologists believe, "aggression is an optional strategy.

Physical aggression:

Men more likely to be perpetrators (extreme violence in families, inflicting more serious injury)

Relational aggression:

Women are more likely to be perpetrators (shunning, or spreading false rumors)

No gender difference with less violent physical aggression with partners

Women are just as likely to hit, slap, throw objects (Testa et al., 2011; Straus, 2011)

Social-Cognitive Learning Theory

-People learn social behavior through observation and imitation of others

-Both positive (e.g., altruism) and negative (e.g., aggression) social behavior

"Think drink" effect

Expectations about the effects of alcohol▪ When people expect alcohol to have certain effects on them, it often does. Indeed, when people expect that alcohol will "release" their aggressive impulses, they often do become more aggressive—even when they are drinking something nonalcoholic. (Begue et al., 2009)

Some Physiological Influences that increase aggression

pain, discomfort, heat

Frustration-Aggression Theory

The idea that frustration—the perception that you are being prevented or blocked from attaining a goal—increases the probability of an aggressive response

Frustration

Does not always lead to aggression-Often Increases anger and "readiness to aggress"▪ "aggression is an optional strategy"

Goal proximity

Closer to goal equals more frustration

▪ E.g., someone cuts in line -More frustration equals more aggression

Unexpectedness of frustration

-More unexpected equals more aggression

Frustration-aggression link depends on

Size and strength of the person responsible for your frustration

-Person's ability to retaliate

-Proximity of the person

Likelihood of aggression is reduced when frustration is:

Understandable; Legitimate; Unintentional

▪car accidents

Incompatible Responses

can reduce aggression

An important cause of aggression is relative deprivation

the perception that you (or your group) have less than you deserve, less than what you have been led to expect, or less than what people similar to you have

Weapons Effect (Berkowitz & Le Page, 1967)

The increase in aggression that can occur because of the mere presence of a gun or other weapon

Possible Consequences of Being Exposed to Violence via Media

•Numbs people to difficult, violent, and unpleasant events "desensitization"

•Increases indifferences to real victims of violence

•Repeated dehumanizes the "enemy" in games can affect how players regard real people

If aggressive act is used for punishment:

-Punishers model aggressive behavior -Might induce person to imitate their action

Threat of mild punishment

-Powerful enough to get the child to stop the undesired activity-Child must then justify his or her restraint, leading to attitude change

Harsh Punishment used with children

-May backfire-Does not model appropriate behaviors

harsh punishments used with adults

- incarceration, death penalty-Can act as a deterrent▪BUT - must be swift and certain

Social rejection is a significant risk factor for

teenage suicide, despair, and violence

Most teenagers who have committed murders were

bullied and rejected by peers

Prejudice

A hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group, based solely on their membership in that group. Any group can be a target

Prejudice is an attitude - ABCs of an attitudes:

Affective, behavioral, cognitive

Affective or emotional component

for example anger, hostility, disdain, disgust (Emotions)

Behavioral component

relating to one's actions (Discrimination)

cognitive component

involving beliefs or thoughts, cognitions (Stereotypes)

The Affective Component: Emotions

Negative emotions about groups are often ingrained•This makes such attitudes difficult to dispel•Not based on logic

The Cognitive Component: Stereotypes

the little pictures we carry around inside our heads

Stereotype

A generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members

Stereotyping:

-a cognitive process -can be positive or negative; true or false-technique we use to simplify our world

"Cognitive misers"

take shortcuts and adopt rules of thumb to understand people

Allport (1954)

"law of least effort"

Stereotypes: Adaptive and maladaptive

-Adaptive: when accurately identifies attributes of a group well

-Maladaptive: blinds us to individual differences

Adaptive:

when accurately identifies attributes of a group well

Maladaptive:

blinds us to individual differences

Traditional stereotypes

women, men, hostile sexism, benevolent sexism,

women stereotypes

More socially sensitive, friendlier, and more concerned with the welfare of others. Caring and good cooks

men stereotypes

more dominant, controlling, and independent

hostile sexism

Stereotypical views of women that suggest that women are inferior to men ▪E.g., that they are less intelligent, less competent, etc.

Benevolent sexism

Stereotypical, positive views of women - still demeaning to women, suggests "weaker sex". May be affectionate but patronizing (Glick & Fiske, 2001)

Discrimination

An unjustified negative or harmful action toward the members of a group simply because of their membership in that group