Psychology 202 Exam 2: UW Madison - Addington

What are the 6 universal emotions?

happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, surprise

How does viewing emotions as discrete different from viewing them as continuous?

Viewing emotions as discrete means that you are either one emotion or the other, while continuous acknowledges in between

Three classic theories of emotion

1. James-Lange: Stimulus -> physiological response -> fear (emotion)

2. Cannon-Bard: Stimulus -> physiological response and emotion simultaneously

3. Schachter-Singer (Two factor theory): Stimulus -> physiological response + brain evaluates physical response -> emotion

What are cultural display rules?

When it is appropriate to display certain emotions differ between cultures

How does suppression differ from reappraisal, in terms of the expression of emotion?

-Suppression is holding back

-Reappraisal is thinking of a situation in a different way

How is Duchenne smiles different from 'fake' smiles?

Voluntary smiles don't activate all of the facial muscles (such as the wrinkles you get by your eyes -> crows feet) while real smiles do

Can animals understand the human expression of disgust?

Yes

What is the facial feedback hypothesis? What types of experimental evidence support this hypothesis?

-Can facial movement affect emotional experience? yes! (when you fake a smile you actually get happier because the muscles used trigger the release of chemicals in the brain for happiness)

-The idea that one's facial expressions can have an effect on emotional experience

- Strack, Martin, and Stepper (pen position)

- Botox Studies (after the botox, certain parts of the brain had a decrease in emotional processing)

According to research, how are autistic children different from matched controls in terms of the recognition of emotion?

Worse

Cognitive empathy

Capacity to understand another's perspective or mental state

Empathy

recognize emotions of others

Emotional contagion

One individual's emotions and related behaviors directly trigger similar emotions and behaviors in others

Emotional Empathy

Capacity to respond with an appropriate emotion to another's mental state

Empathy in animals?

-Frans deWaal

-Example: Reconciliation in chimpanzees

-Reconciliation behaviors after a conflict: hugging, kissing, patting hands, grooming

Achievement Motivation

An individual's need to meet realistic goals, receive feedback, and experience a sense of accomplishment

Intrinsic motivation

-A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

-Internal

Extrinsic motivation

-a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

-external

Performance goal

-Focus on demonstrating competence or ability and how ability will be judge relative to others

- "I want to get an A in this class"

Mastery goal

-Focus on learning, mastering the task according to self-set standards or self-improvement

- "I want to understand the material in this class"

Study of achievement motivation

-Study: relationship between goal orientation and academic performance in pharmacy students

-Results: students with mastery orientation had the highest performance scores

Three basic memory processes

1. Encoding

2. Storage

3. Retrieval

Encoding

Acquiring information and transferring to memory

Storage

Retention of memory

Retrieval

Recovery of stored information

Three types of Memory Storage

1. Sensory Memory

2. Short-term memory / working memory

3. Long-term memory

Sensory memory

-duration: 1 second or less

-capacity: very large

-visual, touch (haptic), acoustic (echoic)

Short-term memory

-duration: several seconds

-capacity: "magic number" of 7 +/- (other estimates)

-importance of rehearsal

-effects of chunking

Working Memory

-updated model of short-term memory

-more active process of storage than original STM model

-more complex processing than STM

Long-term memory

-duration: probably unlimited

-capacity: probably unlimited

Types of long-term memory

1. Declarative (explicit & conscious)

2. Non-declarative (implicit & unconscious)

Declarative memory

-Semantic: word meanings and facts

-Episodic: Timeline of personal experiences

-Autobiographical: blend of semantic and episodic

Non-declarative Memory

-Procedural: How to carry out skilled movement

-Classical Condition: Stimulus-response connections

-Priming: change in response due to exposure to related stimuli

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon? What does it tell us about the retrieval process?

-when you can almost remember something or aspects of it but not exactly what you want

-it hints at a gradual retrieval process.

Serial Postion effect

-primacy effect: better recall for the first items on a list

-recency effect: better recall for last items on a list

-essentially remembering the beginning and ending of something

Proactive interference

old information hinders the learning of new information

Retroactive interference

new learning leads to misrememebring of old information

How can we improve memory?

-distributed practice

-exercise: increases neurogenesis

-sleep: memory consolidation

-elaborative rehearsal

Why do we forget?

-Decay**: difficulty in retrieving information that has not been used in a long time

-Measuring retention of 'old' information: Method of savings

-Interference: Competition between older and newer information in memory

Two types of interference

1. Proactive interference

2. Retroactive interference

Elaborative rehearsal

-retrieval practice vs. restudying

-verbalize material

-link information to self

-mnemonic devices

Rote rehearsal

-learning by simple repetition

-simple grocery list we did in class

Method of Loci

-A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

-better than rote**

Amygdala

critical for emotional conditioning

Operant Conditioning

-Type of learning in which the consequences of an organism's behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future

-organism is active

-responses are voluntary

-responses are emitted

-reinforcement is contingent on desire response

Important things to remember:

-REINFORCEMENT always means the probability of behavior INCREASES

-PUNISHMENT always means the probability of behavior DECREASES

*positive always means add

*negative always means takeaway

Set Point

A value that is defended to maintain homeostasis

Drive

A state of tension and arousal triggered by cues important for survival

Drive Reduction

The state of relief and reward produced by removing the tension and arousal of the drive state

Incentive

A reward that pulls an organism's behavior in a particular direction

Affiliation

Being associated with other people

Appraisals

The detection and assessment of stimuli that are relevant to personal well-being

Yerkes-Dodson law

A description of the relationships among task complexity, arousal, and performance

Somatovisceral Afference Model of Emotion (SAME)

A model of emotion in which a range of physical sensations from precise to general requires varying degrees of cognitive processing prior to subjective feelings

Catharsis

A theory of emotion that views emotion as a reservoir that fills up and spills over; it predicts that expressing an emotion will reduce arousal

Aversion therapy

An application of counterconditioning in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) formerly paired with a pleasurable unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is instead paired with an unpleasant UCS

Conditioned/secondary reinforcer

A reinforcer that gains value from being associated with other things that are valued

Habituation

A simple form of learning in which reactions to repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease

Inhibition

A feature of classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) predicts the nonoccurrence of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Latent inhibition

The slower learning that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is already familiar compared to when the CS is unfamiliar

Latent learning

Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement

Token economy

An application of operant conditioning in which tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers are used to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors

Systematic desensitization

A type of counterconditioning in which people relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear

Partial reinforcement effect in extinction

The more rapid extinction observed following continuous reinforcement compared to that following partial reinforcement

Non-associative learning

Learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to stimuli

Shaping / Method of successive approximations

A method for increasing the frequency of behaviors that never or rarely occur

Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule of reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following a set number of behaviors

Fixed interval (FI) schedule

A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response following a specified interval is reinforced

Acquisition

The development of a learned response

Schema

A set of expectations about objects and situations

Reconstruction

Rebuilding a memory out of stored elements

Priming

A change in a response to a stimulus as a result of exposure to a previous stimulus

Motivated forgetting

Failure to retrieve negative memories

Declarative memories

A consciously retrieved memory that is easy to verbalize, including semantic, episodic, and autobiographical information; also known as explicit memory

Flashbulb memory

An especially vivid and detailed memory of an emotional event

Forgetting

A decrease in the ability to remember a previously formed memory

Rehearsal

Repetition of information

Occipital lobe dealing with semantic memories

Naming animals is associated with activity in the visual cortex of the occipital lobe, suggesting that we think about what an animal looks like to name it

Motor cortex regarding semantic memories

Naming tools activates areas associated with hand movements, suggesting that we think about how we would use a hammer or saw to name one

Procedural memories correlate with activation of...

Basal ganglia

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

The enhancement of communication between two neurons resulting from their synchronous activation

Spreading activation model

A connectionist theory proposing that people organize general knowledge based on their individual experiences

Levels of processing theory

The depths (shallow to deep) of processing applied to information that predict its ease of retrieval

Information processing

A continuum including attention, sensation, perception, learning, memory, and cognition

What are reflexes?

An inevitable, involuntary response to stimuli

What are Instincts?

An inborn pattern of behavior elected by environmental stimuli; also known as a fixed action pattern

What do the results of Bandura's 'Bobo doll' study tell us about observational learning?

-four necessary cognitive processes in modeling others' behavior are attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation

-this experiment was the one where the kids would watch how adults treated the Bobo doll and then when given the opportunity to interact with the doll, they acted in such a way according to what they saw previously (could've been violent or not)

-models that get our attention are more likely to elicit imitation. A person must retain a memory of what the model did. We must be able to reproduce the behavior.Finally, a person must have a motivation for imitating the behavior. Either past or anticipated reinforcement encourages us to model another person's behavior.

What is the Premack Principle? What are some examples of its use?

1. a preferred activity (or behaviors with a higher level of intrinsic reinforcement) can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity

-ranking of behaviors

2. most children prefer candy over carrots, so rewarding a child with candy for eating carrots often increases carrot consumption. One little boy with autism spectrum disorder, however, preferred carrots to M&Ms, and his training proceeded more smoothly when carrot rewards were substituted for candy reward

What is extinction?

-the reduction of a learned response

-in classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) no longer follows the conditioned stimulus (CS)

-in operant conditioning, extinction occurs when the consequence no longer follows the learned behavior

What is spontaneous recovery?

-the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

(both are correct definitions)

-during extinction training, the reappearance of conditioned responses (CRs) after periods of rest

Discrimination

-in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

-a learned ability to distinguish between stimuli

Sensitization

An increased reaction to many stimuli following exposure to one strong stimulus

Generalization

the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus (CS)

How is emotion different from mood?

-moods are feelings without a specific cause

-emotions are responses to specific events

Minimal justification effect

When the external justification is minimal, you will reduce your dissonance by changing internal cognitions

What does HSAM refer to?

-Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory

-you remember every detail

What is the difference between declarative and nondeclarative memory?

-Declarative memory: memorize information, explicit, consciously, words, facts, things that happened to us

-Nondeclarative memory: perform skill without recalling, implicit, procedural memory, riding a bike, driving a car, unconscious

What do studies on eyewitness testimony tell us about the accuracy of memory?

-Misinformation Effect: (Loftus)

-Memory Intrusions: saw sign, read about false things regarding the sign and when recalling from their memory, read false elements intruded upon the preexisting accurate memory

-Example: Steven Avery being falsely accused of raping the woman.

How does emotion influence memory for people with PTSD?

Randomly (when someone hears a certain noise or sees something as an example) , emotional, traumatic recollections of events occur and are triggered by sensations

How do neurons respond to sensitization and habituation?

-Sensitization: getting an excitatory signal, stimulating, firing a lot, getting more receptive

-Habituation: after repeated stimulation, not as responsive. (if someone in apartment keeps pulling fire alarm, eventually you're not gonna react as much)

Axon terminals and dendrites recieving have growth when sensitization. Habituation - lose dendritic connections and loss of neuronal material

What is long-term potentiation?

through electrical stimulation, there are more synaptic vesicles being produced. Synapsis functioning at a higher level, repeated use, stronger connections

Which brain structures are involved with declarative memory?

Nondeclarative? How do studies of people with brain disease or damage help us determine this information?

From PET scans, damage to hippocampus = issues with declarative but not nondeclarative memory. Couldn't form new memories. Parkinsons and Huntingtons - damage to basal ganglia, difficulty with procedural memory (nondeclarative) but not declarative