ARTH 005 Final

Offering 4, La Venta, Mexico, Olmec culture, 900-400 BCE, jade, greenstone, granite, and sandstone, heigh of figures 6-7”

\-people gathered and facing one another, buried in this exact formation

\-placed in sand, buried, layers of the mound built up and a hole made to check on them before being covered again, clay that fell in was different than original; important and location remembered for a century

\-one red figure has its back turned, all have stylistic similarities of elongated heads, almond eyes, slouching postures characteristic of Olmec art, elongated faces

\-different stages of wear because made at different times, maybe buried when finished being used in ceremonies

\-holes in the ears and eyes, bodies simple, may have had other material as earrings, clothing, headdresses

\-could be a council or a wedding, intentional grouping

Olmec

\-first large civilization, located in Vera Cruz, Mexico

\-iron ore, jade, and other materials indicate trade of culture

\-ceremonial centers likely held higher classes like rulers and priests, everyone else in villages of thatch

Votive axe, 1200-400 bCE, Mexico, Olmec culture, aventurine

\-decorative or ceremonial, not actually used, represents supernatural deity (possibly one who split open the underworld)

\-large head, squat body which narrows into the axe itself, eyebrows shaped like flames (eagle ears/horns sticking up)

\-cleft in center of head like the fontanelle of a human baby (soft skull) and jaguars have dent in the same place

\-heirloom in family, would have been passed down

Jade pectoral (with Maya glyphs), 1000-600 BCE, Mexico, Olmec culture, jadeite

\-downturned mouth, drill holes for nostrils, elongated oval head, more naturalistic with shaped cheeks and eyes

\-holes in earlobes and deeply carved irises originally had inlaid shell

\-distinctive nose that starts very high, hooked, hair details

\-Mayan carving for family name on side, was a chest ornament reused by the Maya people, worn to show long family history and connection the ruler had to the Olmec

\-jade only found in river in Guatemala, very hard stone only carved with more jade tools and polished with jade dust, associated with rebirth and fertility bc of river

Colossal Head, San Lorenzo, Mexico, Olmec culture, 1200-900 bCE, basalt, almost 8’

\-basalt was quarried in large blocks and traded around the Americas, this was one of two heads found in this center

\-adult male with cap and chin strap, almond eyes, fleshy face like others but more individualized, maybe specific people

\-ear pierced by cylinder, head didn’t belong to a body, would have been brightly painted

Temple of the Moon at the ceremonial center of the city of Teotihuacan, Mexico, Teotihuacan culture, 100-650 CE

\-Aztec name, unknown what they originally called it, Aztecs viewed as sacred and important

\-Teotihuacan was the first city here, manufacturing and commerce center, grid plan and most lived in apartment complexes

\-designed around the south-north axis, leads to this temple, framed by mountain behind the man-made mountain

\-they enlarged the temple several times, human sacrifices correspond to the architectural layers

\-like Ziggurats bc one point of entry, steps and levels going upwards

Temple of the Feathered Serpent, The Ciudadela, Teotihuacan, Mexico, Teotihuacan culture, 200 CE

\-in fortified city center

\-sculptural feathered serpents on the side, painted remnants, large holes for intimidating obsidian eyes, feathers on the serpents are same as those on the storm god kaur

\-many human sacrifices buried inside, included warriors, warrior king may also be buried here

\-Olmec more curvy-linear, this city more angular

talud-tablero structure

“slope and panel” structure, talud (sloping base) supports a tablero (horizontal platform)

Storm God Vessel, 200-700 CE, Mexico, Teotihuacan, soapstone

\-drinking vessel but ceremonial

\-outside shaped like storm god with fangs coming out of mouth, holes drilled into them, large ears and earrings, arms at side, holding a spear and darts, prominent eyes

\-destruction of storm associated with destruction of war

Mural Fragment with Elite Male and Maguey Cactus leaves, 500-550 CE, Teotihuacan, fresco on wall fragment

\-murals like this all over the city, one of many figures repeated on this building

\-monochromatic in red but not all are like this, some browns and blacks, decorated the patio space of an apartment complex, motif repeated as a part of a procession

\-squat human figure in profile, open mouth, lavishly dressed with lots of jewelry and a headdress, decorative feathers on his back

\-scroll out of mouth like speech bubble, chanting symbols

\-possibly a priest performing a ceremony because holding a basket of incense and waterfall of blood with symbols (“blood and seeds” indicated blood-letting ritual to enrich the earth

\-cactus spines in plots of land or bundles of crop in background, maybe used to begin the ritual, framed by chevron pattern

\-evocation of fertility and blessing of the gods

Mayans

400 BCE early Maya culture develops

250-900 CE reaches peak in southern Mexico and Guatemala

900-1521 CE shifts to northern Yucatan peninsula

\-city states that feuded often, had densely populated cities with palaces, temples, and administrative buildings

Temple I, Tikal, Guatemala, Maya culture, 734 CE

\-funerary tomb made of 9 levels, corresponds to the nine levels of the underworld

\-one access point of steep stairs, crest would have had painted sculptures

\-Jasaw Chan K’awiil buried here

Temple of the Inscriptions, Palenque, Mexico, Maya culture, 683 CE

\-burial place of king K’inich Janahb Pakal “Pakal the Great”

\-squatter version with nine levels, decorative roof originally, lined with many inscriptions describing the importance of Pakal and his family, five entrances, pyramid leads up to temple, Pakal buried underneath?

\-Pakal’s body covered in jade (for rebirth) and cinnabar (stone mercury or red pigment)

Lid of the Sarcophagus of Pakal the Great, from Pakal’s tomb, Palenque, Mexico, Maya culture, 683 CE

\-symbolic images, Pakal in the middle falling in to or resting in the underworld, tree of life above → straddled between realms

\-bird on top represents the celestial world, mouth of a god may be on the bottom

Portrait Head of Pakal the Great, 650-83, Palenque, Mexico, Maya culture, stucco

\-found buried underground, traces of pigment, not attached to a body

\-nose begins on forehead, almond eyes with fleshy eyelids, largely pierced earlobes, high cheek bones

\-more realistic with a thinner face, narrowness reflects individualized person but some idealized features are present

\-children’s heads bound for this elongated face shape

\-represented as the maize god, maize flowers and leaves coming out of headdress, associated with cycle of harvest and regrowth

Shield Jaguar and Lady Xook, Lintel 24, Yaxchilan, Mexico, Maya culture, 725 CE, limestone

\-lintel is a stone above a doorway, shield jaguar was shown in and commissioned many (ruled for sixty years), depict narratives, seem to happen sequentially as they were carved one at a time after some time

\-deep relief, shield jaguar has elaborate headdress made of feathers or maize leaves, holds a torch, shrunken head on top of his may be that of a sacrifice

\-lady xook kneeling, detailed textile and lots of jewelry with ancestor portrait, large earring and headdress, performing bloodletting ritual as she pulls a barbed rope through her tongue, streams of blood along her face and down in the basket of paper to soak up

\-both in profile but somewhat turned to viewer, inscriptions give their identities and dates, ritual required of rulers to appease the gods

\-likely was brightly painted

Lady Xook’s Vision, Lintel 25, Yaxchilan, Mexico, Maya culture, 725 CE, limestone

\-lady xook burns the blood-soaked papers to give to the gods, depicts hallucinations and interaction with supernatural beings after blood-letting ritual (likely from faintness and incense), summons this god

\-god could be her ancestor or shield jaguar’s ancestor recognizing his rule, may be a protector god to watch over his reign

\-this ritual done by royal women, men would pierce their genitals, both occurred to mark important events like birth

\-serpent figure with massive open jaw, human-like figure inside

Shield jaguar dresses for battle with the help of Lady Xook, Lintel 26, Yaxchilan, Mexico, Maya culture, 725 CE, limestone

\-lady xook’s mouth still bloody, holding shield jaguar’s war headdress

\-spiritual protection of family in the hands of xook, shield jaguar protects the city-state

\-elongated heads (likely bound), have similar faces

Cylindrical vessel with ball game scene, 682-701 CE, painted ceramic

\-drinking vessel for bitter chocolate, had during ceremonies and rituals

\-figures are aristocratic because of headdresses, wouldn’t have actually been the athletes but may have participated in related rituals, sponsored players

\-ritual ball game on special court with a large rubber ball (maybe on fire), heavily padded players must move without their hands

\-people travelled to see games, cultural gathering that encouraged trade

\-sizes of fields varied, victory rituals were unknown but had political implications

Ballgame Hip Protector (Yoke), 600-900, Mexico, greenstone, pigment

\-worn to protect an athlete’s hips, made of stone so ceremonial and owned by a high-ranking figure, worn for rituals on the field but not games

\-cinnabar in the cracks makes the carvings stand out (also used for bodies in burial), greenstone associated with jade and its properties

\-depicts skull and divine twins who defeated death god in the underworld, death imagery with material of life (common juxtaposition in their art)

Peru/Bolivia

\-cultures had strict hierarchy

\-art shows a lot of animals and real tropical beasts combined

900-200 BCE Chavin de Huantar is important religious center and pilgrimage site along track route from coast to Amazon basin, temple large and in ruins now

Lanzon, Chavin de Huantar, Peru, Chavin culture, 900 BCE, granite

\-passageways with air vents in temple, no natural light so needed torches

\-lanzon is a pillar, thin, comes to point on edge, if flattened out shows creature with one arm raised

\-squat legs, maybe sitting, long claws on limbs, arm gesturing to underworld, geometric patterns on clothing, diagonal fangs associated with jaguars, pieced ears, hair made of snakes

\-figure is middleman between life and death

\-could pour something down from platform and runs through channel over the face of the pillar

\-echoes a lot, pillar may have been oracle figure, concealed priest would speak for god like the Greeks, could say something from inside and hear from outside, like speaking with the gods when the temple speaks

Reliefs, Huaca de la Luna, 100-800 CE, Moche Valley, Peru, adobe brick

\-better condition than the massive sun pyramid

\-reliefs show battles/warriors/supernatural deities associated with war, prisoners of war attached by rope, Moche warrior carrying armor from the enemy

\-mass sacrifices of men in battle, prisoners sacrificed and buried here

Portrait head vessels, 200-550 CE, Moche style, Peru, earthenware with colored slips

\-Moche art very realistic, especially their clay works, many of these heads, all individualized; smooth features of face and jewelry is also individualized

\-stirrup spout indicative of Moche vessels

\-1st has vertical bands of paint, 2nd has double earrings and was a foreigner to Moche, portrayed differently with a bun on his head (prisoner of war or a foreign ruler)

\-found in burials but used beforehand, given as gifts among high ranking men, used for ceremonial purposes during life

Sea lion pup vessel, 200-850 CE, Moche style, Peru, ceramic

Feline vessel, 200-850 CE, Moche style, Peru, ceramic

\-black and red vessels created with slip and controlling oxygen flow, made in molds so many could be made, still only for richer members of society

\-stirrup spouts

\-cat may be a jaguar, sea lions are associated with guides to the underworld for water deaths

Geoglyphs (hummingbird and spider), 1-700 CE, Nazca Plain, Peru

\-oxidized stone removed to show light stone, dark stone placed as an outline

\-thought to be for processions, walked or danced along as a ritual, some point toward the mountains or are near water, may direct people towards water, could be deities

\-sites maintained by removing newly oxidized rock, only found with air travel so was left along beforehand

\-some animals on pottery in this culture, found inside geoglyphs in the dark stone

\-done by large, organized group; community effort

Beaver effigy platform pipe, from Bedford Mound, Pike County, Illinois, Hopewell culture, 100-400 CE, pipestone, river pearls, and bone

\-to smoke, brought up close to face

\-river pearls are inlaid

\-no written material from this culture, from burial, likely had spiritual or ritualistic significance

Great Serpent mound, 1070 CE, Adams County, Ohio, Mississippian culture

\-unsure who created but likely a Mississippian culture

700-1550 CE Mississippian period had widespread distribution of large and small complex chiefdoms through Mississippi, Illinois, and Ohio river valleys

\-debated if its a snake or a lizard, conforms to the natural landscape

\-valley shaped by meteor long before made, egg thing ends on a cliff

Mimbres/Mogolion culture

flourished in mountains of west-central New Mexico

Bowl, Scorpions, 950-1150 CE, New Mexico, Mogolion (Mimbres), ceramic, pigment

\-ceremonial and “killed” at the end of its life, reason for hole

\-was inverted and placed on the head of a dead and buried person, maybe made for death ritual to guide the person into the underworld

\-white and black with scorpions

Purse Lid, Anglo-Saxon, early 7th century from Mound 1, Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, England, gold and cloisonné

\-handing from belt but acted as a purse lid, originally had leather, dated by the coins found with it

\-cloisonné enamel when pieces of colored glass held in place by raised metal compartments

\-depicts person with male genitals, dog-like animals wrapped around him, eagles or birds of prey in middle around ducks; zoomorphic interlace above birds (animal limbs turn into knots)

Anglo-Saxons

culture of tribes (Angles and Saxons) who migrated to Britain from northern Europe and developed a shared language of Old English

\-most artifacts from Sutton Hoo ship burial or other ship burials

\-Beowulf story: hero, fights Grendle from shadow-like realm who eats soldiers, kills its mother and dies fighting dragon, buried with treasures

Shield (reconstruction) with bird and dragon fittings, Anglo-Saxon, early 7th century from Mound 1, Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, England, gold, copper alloy, garnet, cloisonné

\-bird figure with long spiral beak and huge talons to indicate that its a bird of prey; mouth of dragon with teeth and interlace on body, multiple sets of wings and legs

\-small face in red glass, blending of humans and animals

\-likely symbolic of strength of animals or indicative of the tribe

Helmet (and reconstruction), Anglo-Saxon, early 7th century, from Mound 1, Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, England, iron, copper alloy, gold, tin, garnet, silver

\-copper alloy and tin narrative scenes with war and animal scenes

\-dragon nose piece which meets second animal, wings are also boars on the eyebrows

Ceremonial whetstone/scepter, Anglo-Saxon, early 7th century, from Mound 1, Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, England, stone and copper alloy

\-dense grey stone used for whetstones but there is no evidence that it was used to sharpen blades

\-four faces and onion shapes painted red with copper alloy, stag on top has copper alloy

\-faces each distinct and individualized, masks because outlined, may represent deities or one god with many faces or aspects

The Franks Casket, 8th century, Anglo-Saxon, whale bone, 10.9 cm x 22.9 cm x 19 cm

\-not from the Franks, name of collector, casket not for holding body

\-decorated with scenes of different religious practices with English and Latin script, some of which is encoded

\-unknown what it was used for or who it was used by

\
Lid:

\-label above arch says “Ageal” which was a saga character, no points like this in story

\-birds eye view of castle, bird of prey over person, archer, naked guys throwing selves off of building and soldiers, battle scene but identity of figures unknown

\-one interpretation says that it’s Achilles, another says they’re giants

The Franks Casket, front panel, 8th century, Anglo-Saxon, whale bone

\-Weyland the Smith panel

\-three magi processing and offering things to Mary, following star, dressed as Romans, Mary and Jesus seated on throne'

\-people at forge and someone holding bird (Germanic), elf made to be blacksmith by King, escapes

\-inscriptions are a rhyming riddle, answer is “ a beached whale,” made of whale bone

The Franks Casket, back panel, 8th century, Anglo-Saxon, whale bone

\-inscriptions in Runes and Latin scripts

\-depiction of capture of Jerusalem by Titus

\-corners say “hostage" and “judgement,” middle depicts the temple of Solomon, which is significant in the Hebrew bible

The Franks Casket, side (1) panel, 8th century, Anglo-Saxon, whale bone

\-Romulus and Remus, boys breastfeeding from she-wolf

\-mythological twins associated with the founding of Rome

The Franks Casket, side (2) panel, 8th century, Anglo-Saxon, whale bone

\-inscription is a poem, known how it relates, partially encoded because the vowels are replaced with symbols

\-3 inscriptions within the imagery, read “rush” and “wood” and “bitter,” either identifying the figures or telling the story

\-animal sitting like a human and engaging with a person

\-horse, hooded figure and chalice, three hooded figures huddled

Matthew carpet page, Lindisfarne Gospels, c. 700, Lindisfarne Priory

\-Lindisfarne Gospels were produced in a monastic community associated with St. Cuthbert who was a missionary at the time

\-page completely filled, no negative space; labor and time intensive, accounts of meditative state while made

\-cross and not crucifix because no person, very detailed interlace, some of which is zoomorphic, repetitive imagery and very detailed

\-blue ink often scraped off because it was made of precious metals

\-highly valued and treasured at the time it was made, people travelled to see

Matthew title page, Lindisfarne Gospels, c. 700, Lindisfarne Priory

\-Latin, “Liber” meaning book in one script, beginning of family of Jesus Christ, descended from David and Abraham

\-gospels are four books recounting the life of Jesus, most of the New Testament

\-words split over multiple lines, old english translates the latin in the margins

\-meant to beautify the word of the Gospels, text is already precious; monks had memorized so wasn’t needed to read

Portrait of Matthew, Lindisfarne Gospels, c. 700, Lindisfarne Priory

\-halo marks as holy, Roman attributes of wrinkled brow and clothing and grey/white hair, wearing sandals

\-winged man distinguishes him as Matthew, labelled as well, winged man has scroll in his mouth, unclear the direction it is going

\-linear perspective and foreshortening but no modeling

\-portrait because represents identity as an author, divine because of the halo and supernatural figure out of his head

\-anglo-saxon details on corners and long mustaches

Ezra writing, Codex Amiatinus, before 716, Wearmouth-Jarrow

\-oldest Latin bible of both testaments; northern English monks compiled all the books into one codex, over 1000 pages, 500 animal skins, 75 pounds

\-one abbott travelled to give to the pope, died along the way and the codex stayed at an Italian monastery; someone replaced info on dedication page to say it was made for them, thought to be made in Italy because of its Italian details

\-Ezra from the old testament, priest and scribe associated with Torah, halo but no other symbolism, surrounded by books and ink and tools

\-monasteries were isolated but centers for knowledge, exchanged their books with other monks

\-background is a believable indoor space, modeling and more attempts at perspective (although not successful), text placed outside of frame, pose is how Roman authors are portrayed

Virgin and Christ Child, The Book of Kells, 9th century, Iona

\-book produced in monastery of Iona then went to Kells because of viking raids, book was the last thing remaining from the large monastery

\-attracted pilgrims and diplomats to come see

\-very stylized faces (symbolic), bright contrasting colors, only Mary has a halo, cruciform halo usually only for Jesus; insular style, separated from Mediterranean conventions with anglo-saxon interlace

\-christ looks like a shrunken man, red hair, no engagement but Mary acts as his throne, Mary dressed like an empress with purple and her brooch despite her veil

\-not meant to be legible, beautified texts with figures interspersed

Chi-Ro page, The Book of Kells, 9th century, Iona

\-two letters, glorifies sacred word “messiah” (or Christ)

\-otter catching fish relates to monks who would isolate and only food was otters bringing pages, animals through the will of god

\-ro ends in head with shaggy red hair, two cats hunting mice holding Eucharist which often happened in real life

Evangelist symbols, The Book of Kells, 9th century, Iona

\-ALOE (angel or man with wings for Matthew, lion for Mark, ox for Luke, Eagle for John), evangelists were the authors of the gospels telling the life of Jesus

\-meaningful animals represented, in sky for second apocalypse when messiah returns

\-Matthew’s gospel focuses on Jesus’s life as a man (Jesus = human), Mark’s focuses on Royal lineage (lion is regal), Luke’s has the nativity (ox like farm animals in the manger), John’s was the most prophetic (eagle eye sees all

\-interlace patterns, florals, zoomorphic interlace

\-monk had likely never seen a lion, symbolic, depictions of animals they did see were also unrealistic

Muiredach Cross, c. 923 CE, sandstone, height 18’, Monasterboice (Mainistir Bhuithe), County Louth

\-high, Irish stone cross, most common free-standing sculpture; base, cross, and cap made of different pieces of sandstone, circle connects arms to cross, structural purpose but became a stylistic tradition (halo of light)

\-territory marker for monastic communities or other sacred land, not grave markers; pilgrims could find monasteries on their pilgrimages

\-carved on all sides with figural and abstract decorations, similar to metalwork decoration for sacred locations, used to teach stories of christianity

\-originally brightly painted, depicts adam and even under tree, cain and abel, represents how sins of man redeemed through the sacrifice of christ

\-crucifixtion of christ on one side, one of the earlier depictions of the judgement of christ on the other side; jesus returns and determines whether people will go to heaven or hell, demon pulling a scale, another pushing into hell, reminder to people to not sin

\-two cats and inscription by bottom, monks loved cats

Saint Patrick's Bell and Shrine; bell: 8th–9th century C.E., iron; shrine: c. 1100 C.E., copper-alloy box, silver gilt, gold, silver, gilt-copper, rock crystal, colored stones, 26.7 x 15.5 cm

\-st. patrick considered to be the founder of Christianity in Ireland, bells marked time and called monks to prayer

\-buried with st. patrick and shrine was put over later to glorify; relics important because considered to be attached to the holy person even in heaven (saints exempt from judgement), said to perform miracles

\-filigree (decoration wire in gold or silver), interlaced patterns, crystals; symbolic meaning with zoomorphic interlace on top

\-commissioned by a king of ireland to show his devotion and political power because of his connection to a saint

Jelling memorial stone, 983–985, Jelling, Denmark, granite, height approx. 8’

\-was at family burial near runic stone with the name of the family; Harald Bluetooth put this stone next to it, giving to parents and converted Nords and himself to Christianity

\-Jesus in middle with cruciform and in cruciform posture with no cross, captured in vines

\-brightly painted, strange style because newly converted to Christianity

Jelling memorial stone, 983–985, Jelling, Denmark, granite, height approx. 8’

\-animal, maintaining older pagan traditions

\-Great beast, lion’s mane, pointy ears or horns like an eagle, horse body, fighting snake

Norsemen

\-communities of people, vikings were a group within the Norse communities

\-Viking age was 8th to 11th century, after raid at Lindisfarne in 793, vikings travelled around the globe exploring, raiding, trading, and settling

\-made it to North America and the French game them land in Normandy to stop them, influence seen all throughout the world

Oseberg longship (and detail), c. 820, southwestern Norway, oak, approx. 70’ x 17’

\-oak with iron, oak oars, fifteen people on each side to row but mast allows sailing too; vessel to bring them to the afterlife

\-used for burial, possibly a royal one, fully working but unknown if made just for the burial; pulled from the water, dragged across land, buried underground

\-burial chamber had tapestries and bed with two bodies: elderly woman who died of cancer and was sick before and a younger woman (50) with a broken collarbone a few weeks prior (COD unknown); may have been a companion or servant of queen, maybe sacrificed to accompany to afterlife

\-buried with everything they needed for the afterlife, all women trained to make tapestries and they had the tools to do so

\-decorated with gripping beasts and ribbon animals, ambiguous forms spiral on helm

Animal head posts from Oseberg ship burial, c. 820, southwestern Norway, maple  

\-on ship burial, made by different people because they are different styles

\-attached to furniture/buildings, strange type of posts

\-unidentifiable and heavily decorated animals, had reigns like to ride

\-made of maple, carvings followed curve of the wood

Casket of Empress Cunigunde, c. 1000, Denmark, oak, ivory, bronze, iron, rock crystal, height 5”

\-lots of metalwork, combination of Christian and pagan traditions

\-made as a diplomatic gift by Denmark Scandinavian to the Holy Roman Emperor

\-elaborate, intricate mechanism to open by itself but no longer works

\-zoomorphic interlace

The Urnes Stave Church and north portal, c. 1132, wood, Ornes, Norway 

\-lots of timber in Norway where this was built

\-steep roof to protect the walls from precipitation

\-walls have specific interlace with more negative space, very tapered animals with circular hip joints

\-great beast, battling animal that’s grabbing its neck

\-another combination of Christian (church) and pagan traditions

Lewis chess pieces, late 12th – early 13th century, Norway, walrus ivory and whale tooth, 2”– 4”

\-found buried with many pieces in Scotland (previously Scandinavia) but Norse made; aristocrat owned who travelled and collected chess figures

\-bishop holding crosier and wearing miter with blessing gesture

\-knight biting his shield (berzerker)

\-king and queen on thrones, sword and drinking horn; depict norse furniture

\-traces of mercury show parts were painted red

Medallion with Bust of Christ, late 700s, Migration period Germany, cloisonné enamel and gold on copper, 2 x 1/16 in

\-cloisonné, portrays Jesus, known because of cruciform halo, very abstracted with reds and yellows and greens with gold

\-possibly worn by a priest to signify he was a religious person

\-alpha and omega on either side of head (beginning and end of all things), animals on side

Merovingian dynansty

\-successors of brutal leader Clovis

\-land divided between sons, all killed one another, 200 kings at one time

\-bought the loyalty of their lords and aristocrats by giving them land, eventually they had more land than the kings

\-Carolingians were one family, very strategic and allied with others to rule despite king still holding the title, formed an army

\-Charles Martel, Pepin the short had no title and sent message to the pope to overthrow the king, charlemagne

Illustration from the Gelasian Sacramentary, Merovingian, c. 750

\-bird motif with Alpha and omega, reds, yellows, and greens fill the outlines

\-two columns hold up arch, frame cross and birds, lamb of god on cross representing lamb of god (shepherd)

Crucifixtion *Te Igitur* from the Gellone Sacramentary, Merovingian France, c. 790  

\-filling in of letters with color

\-christ has large eyes connected to a prominent nose, not emaciated, solid and rectangular, looking up at God, blood gushing

\-christ looks very alive and not like he’s dying, focuses on the triumph of Christ to encourage followers

\-cross acts as letter “t” in prayer, book had prayers for mass to ensure done correctly, prayer made into body of christ and said over Eucharist to turn into his body

Statue of Charlemagne or Charles the Bald, 9th century, bronze, height 27 cm

\-in 800, Charlemagne was a warrior king crowned the Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope, much like Christian emperor Constantine

\-had court biographer so book not totally accurate and plagiarized from life of Marcus Aurelius

\-more than 6’ tall, towered, kids educated on liberal arts, with Alcuin of York made sure everyone was literate to understand the bible

\-likely had scepter in hand, portrayed as Marcus Aurelius on horse, horse indicates military power and his role as a soldier

\-stoic expression, mustache, crown with crosses, roman-style military cloak, not proportional to horse

The Godescalc Lectionary, Carolingian Aachen, 781–783

\-made in Aachen which was center of court, not complete bible, Godescalc was scribe who made

\-commemorated and commissioned by Charlemagne for taking Pepin to pope to be baptized

\-Evangelist John writing, looking toward eagle symbol, frontally posed

\-Jesus on right with cruciform halo and labelled, looking at viewer, youthful looking, blessing gesture

\-portrayed as a young philosopher-teacher, vertical perspective, combination of old and new styles

The Godescalc Lectionary (text), Carolingian Aachen, 781–783

\-easily legible, Carolingian minuscule script is similar to that of today

\-purple signifies imperial wealth, gold and silver lettering, lots of money too make

Palatine Chapel plan and exterior, Aachen, 805

\-Charlemagne’s castle, built by Odo of Metz

\-octagonal structure with dome, modeled after Italian/Roman private chapels, stones brought from Rome and Rivena, previously was the site of a Roman sanctuary over a hot spring

Odo of Metz, Palatine Chapel Interior, Aachen, 805

\-very intimate, formed new style, show of wealth

\-Roman: corinthian pillars, lots of arches, mosaics

\-black and white alternating marble arches

\-private chapel but demonstration of his holy power and wealth

St. Matthew Coronation Gospels, Palace School, Aachen, early 9th century

\-also belonged to Charlemagne, supposedly buried with him but removed when a king went into his tomb

\-evangelist because author, seated scribe, know Matthew because his gospel follows this image

\-youthful, lots of modeling, horizon in background, focused on background, attempt at recession of space, body shape and robes are different

Gospel cover, c. 810, Aachen, elephant ivory, 15” x 10”

\-ivory workshop attached to manuscript workshop in Aachen, must have commissioned and collaborated

\-elephant ivory had to be imported, hard to carve and dense material but lasts a long time, allows for very small details, sturdy and gleaming white; originally had gold detailing

\-rounded arches with decorated capitals, figures resemble later Roman depictions with the drapery

\-classical iconography: bulls, arches and drapery, winged victory symbols on top

\-winged victory/angels holding portraits of Jesus as triumphant ruler, virgin and child in her lap, virgin acts as throne, she points at him and he points at book

\-john the baptist and Zachariah on sides (predicting the coming of the messiah); nativity on bottom, Joseph not participating or important yet

\-figures represented as Roman bc want to represent the rebirth of the Roman Empire under Charlemagne

St Matthew \n The Ebbo Gospels, France, 816–823

\-Ebbo was archbishop and librarian in Aachen

\-winged man in background identifies as Matthew, posture of a Roman author

\-matthew has scroll going into ink horn, clothing has draper but unrealistic, no halo, no serene expression, large eyes and very arched brows

\-outside, background conforms around him, brush details and architecture

Frontispiece to Genesis, \n The Moutier-Grandval Bible, ca. 834-43, Monastery of St Martin at Tours 

\-edited by Alquin of York who was advisor to Charlemagne, single volume Volgate bible, France, royal network of Aachen but stylistically different

\-four narrative registers read from left to right, story of Adam and Eve

\-all pointing when confronted by God, blaming others, now have shame, condemned to labor (women bring children into world, men to toil in field)

\-stylized bodies, separated by outlines, God depicted as a young man like Jesus, no division between scenes, figures repeated and all have same face and body shape

\-brown sand, dark water and sky, more naturalistic perspective

Maiestas Domini, The Vivian Bible, 846, Tours 

\-Christ in majesty, diamond with Christ in center, enthroned as ruler of universe, globe is his throne with the stars

\-evangelists and their symbols in the corners, old testament prophets in circles, represents harmony of old and new testament, all surround Christ as the human representation of the word of god

Presentation to Charles the Bald, The Vivian Bible, 846, Tours

\-in same bible, depiction of this book being given to Charles the Bald

\-Charles royal because of crown, Emperor because of hoop on top of crown, fancy throne and scepter, acknowledges bible with hand

\-clerics (priests or monastic men) and soldiers and princes surround him; columns and arches with incense burning

\-God’s hand reaching down from the sky, beaming down light, shows his divine rule

\-floating in abstract space, like throne is in air, depicted as supernatural religious figure comparable to Jesus

The Susanna Crystal, Aachen(?) or central Rhineland, c. 869, carved crystal with gilt copper setting, crystal diameter 4.5”

\-commissioned for a king, cut finely out of rock crystal, small crystal

\-tells the story of Susanna from old testament, clockwise, figures labelled

\-young woman goes to bathe in well, two old guys creepily watch her and servants save her, before she can report, elders say she’s sleeping with the servants (signifies poor moral character)

\-they go in front of king and are questioned separately, then stoned to death

Jeweled cover of the Lindau Gospels, c. 880–890, Abbey of St Gall (Switzerland), gold, pearls, and gems, 13” x 10” 

\-very elaborate with all gold and Cabochon gems

\-crucifix separates, rings of paws hold up larger stones and allows to rest softly when opened, preserves shape of gold since soft metal

\-angel figures in writhing or flying postures around the paws, crying out in sorrow for crucifixion, shows movement through drapery and postures

\-Christ unfazed, large staring eyes signify triumph and survival despite death

Gero Crucifix, c. 970, Cologne, painted wood, 6’2 high

\-commissioned by archbishop Gero in Cologne

\-first surviving large wood sculpture in Europe

\-change of style with the millenium, people thought apocalypse was coming and wanted to be in Christ’s favor

\-Christ slumped over, not holding himself up, knees bent, distended stomach shows suffering and his head is fallen and unresponsive, skin stretched around armpits

\-crucifixion less about triumph and more about Christ’s suffering, evokes sadness and empathy

The Barbarini Ivory, Ivory inlay, mid-6th century, 13” high

\-named after collector

\-may be Justinian in the middle, at least a Byzantine emperor

\-hooped crown, holding tall scepter, behind is bearded man with trousers signifying that he’s a Barberian, similar pose to Marcus Aurelius, woman with fruit holding up hoof represents Terra (symbolic representation of Earth), disproportionate to horse

\-many people bringing gifts in tribute, surrounded by elephants and lions to show they are conquered foreign people

\-Christ blessing emperor, two winged victory (one hold by soldier), two angels, victories often carrying palm leaves or wreaths

\-Justinian wants to be second-coming of Constantine, always at odds with Aristocratic classes

Early Byzantine Period

\-eastern Roman empire but now distinctly Christian

\-during Justinian’s reign, many protests from aristocrats occurred and he created many building projects from the damage

\-art becomes more symbolic

\-Justinian wanted to get rid of remaining classical or pagan traditions to be strictly Christian

Hagia Sophia, 532-37, Constantinople

\-Hagia Sophia: “Holy Wisdom,” church dedicated to Christ as embodiment of divine wisdom.

\-most important building in most important city to him, built in five years; hired theoretical scientists to design something new, came up with domed complex and four towers were added later

\-rectangular basilica with floating dome, windows make look like floating on light, pillars hidden in walls to hold up

\-wants to show glory of Europe and Christian church, meant to confuse and excite the senses

\-decoration not original, marble and mosaics were original

San Vitale, 546-48, Ravenna

\-Ravenna still important because on the western front, more accessible to Europe, built under Justinian despite being far removed from him

\-shaped as octagon as the creator of the Aachen palace likely drew inspiration from here; materials also taken from Ravenna, this building made of ancient roman materials, tradition of using the materials of their predecessors

\-very intricate, natural light brings mosaics to life, corinthian columns and marble, most intense decoration in the apse to direct people there

Apse Mosaic, San Vitale, 546-48, Ravenna

\-Christ depicted as young emperor because he is in purple and clean-shaven

\-enthroned on universe, abstract nature background

\-given wreath by martyr granted into heaven, religious figure offering church to Jesus as the celestial emperor, flanked by angels

Mosaic with Justinian and retinue, San Vitale, 546-48, Ravenna

\-Justinian never actually went but it marks his association

\-holding Eucharist and has halo to show his position is divinely granted, not a saint

\-green abstract backgound

\-mosaic proves his power

icons

images used in devotional practice, pray to as a medium for the actual religious figuresi

iconoclasm

destruction of images or hostility toward representations in general

\-ten commandments said no iconography

\-supporters of icons said that because Jesus was a physical representation of God, the fourth commandment was irrelevant

Virgin and Child Enthroned with Angels and Saints, \n early 7th century, Encaustic painting on panel, 2′ 3″ x 1′ 7 3/8″ Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

\-linear perspective in architectural features of background, angels stacked above the figures in the foreground to indicate depth

\-cast shadows and modeling of Virgin’s knees

\-virgin is a throne for Jesus, Jesus alert and sitting up, looking out at viewer

Christ Pantocrator, \n early 7th century, Encaustic painting on panel, 33” x 18”, Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

\-pantocrator is blessing pose

\-represents Christ as an all-ruling teacher; people started showing the crucifixion less because it was less likely to recruit people if their central figure was portrayed as weak or dead

\-very human-looking; when this is the case with his crucifixion, it evokes more empathy and empathetic worship

\-naturalistic but large eyes, one side more perfect than the other (showing dual nature of half divine, half human)

\-holding book like those we studied, existing out of time, would not have known cross symbol on the book though

Arabia

\-most people nomadic but some lived in cities, large trade route to Mecca

570 Muhammed born in Mecca (center of Arabian wealth), married and managed camels

622 Muhammed begins preaching revelations after the angel Gabriel gives him the word of Allah, unfinished word of Judaism and Christianity (believe Jesus was not divine but a prophet); not super popular because promoted egalitarianism; Muhammed fled to Medina and whole city becomes united under Islam

632 Muhammed dies, first generations of Muslims undertake successful Jihad that spreads Islam

\-greater Jihad is the internal struggle to be a better Muslim

\-lesser Jihad is the external struggle against the disbelief of others

New leaders: Umayyad caliphs (successors), advisors and administrators under Muhammed

637 Arab forces defeat army of Persian empire, subdue all Persia

655 Civil war erupts between Umayyads and followers of Ali, son-in-law of Muhammed

661 Ali assassinated, faction of followers becomes Shi’ism, branch of Islam that recognizes the descendants of Ali and Fatima as the true caliphs, or successors of Muhammed, who are also sinless, infallible, and possess secret knowledge of the Qur’an

Five pillars of Islam

testimony of faith, the practicing Muslim is called to prayer five times a day, giving alms to the poor, fasting during Ramadan to achieve spiritual and self-purification, a pilgrimage to Mecca if possible

Dome of the Rock (exterior), Jerusalem, completed 692 

\-oldest example of Islamic architecture

\-like Roman/Byzantine architecture with its octagonal structure and dome

\-place of veneration for people to pray at holy sites, not a mosque though

\-colorful tiles, Corinthian columns, geometric decorations and inscriptions (Bismillah-phrase that starts each verse of the Qur’an, Shahada-Islamic confession of faith)

\-place where Abraham was meant to sacrifice Isaac, rock where Muhammed departed for his night journey

Dome of the Rock (interior), Jerusalem, completed 692

\-dome over row of windows, alternating black/white marble like Aachen, also in visigothic Spain

\-more inscriptions, double ambulatory because it was originally a pilgrimage site

\-images of crowns, vases, vegetal motifs, no figural art

Great Mosque of Damascus, Umayyad, 708—715, commissioned by al-Walid 

\-Roman temple used to be the center of Damascus, then a huge church was built for John the Baptist, when city was conquered by Muslims they said they’d leave the Christians and their property be

\-al-Walid commissioned for the Muslim population, one of the earliest mosques

\-open courtyard for washing before prayer, mosaics of landscape and architecture, Roman style with leafy scrolls

\-Mosaics look like the wall paintings of Pompeii, representational but not figural, stylized, may be Damascus or a heavenly city

\-Corinthian columns, stacked arches, horse-shoe shaped arches, shrine with head of John the Baptist

Visigoths

\-Iberian peninsula

5th century-continued to use Roman administration and infrastructure

7th century-periodic mass forced conversions of Jewish people, used violence although not supported by the pope, not legit because forced through violence and not word

8th century-most of Iberian peninsula conquered by Muslim armies

The Sacrifice of Isaac Capital, San Pedro de la Nave, 8th century, El Campillo, Zamora, Spain

\-beginning of exteriors of churches decorated with stories, historical capital

\-abraham sacrificing isaac in scene, God stops, lamb in background (old testament story), message to trust god, precursor to the sacrifice of Jesus

\-stiff, stylized figures

Umayyads

750 Abbasids massacre Umayyad house except for Prince ‘Abd al’Rahman who escapes acrossN North Africa and settles in Iberian peninsula

756 Cordoba made capital of Muslim rule in Spain, Christians and Jews allowed to practice, not allowed to build churches, workable relationship but not completely peaceful, Cordoba becomes cultural center for STEM

\-many technologies end up in other parts of Europe, very wealthy city

Hypostyle Hall, Mosque of Cordoba, completed c. 786 

\-originally a Roman temple, example of Muslim power through comparison

\-filled with columns, hypostyle hall (interior space with colonnades or rows of columns), rounded horseshoe arches, striped marble, corinthian capitals

\-looks like infinite space, popularization of horseshoe arch starts here, Roman decorations from Roman buildings

Mihrab and Qibla wall, Mosque of Cordoba, completed c. 786, mihrab redesigned in 10th century 

\-shows which direction to pray (toward Mecca)

\-dense mosaic work and Kufic script inscriptions, vegetal patterns on outside, figural art not allowed in religious context

\-inscriptions are sacred verses of the Qur’an

Vimara and Johannes, The Symbol of Saint Luke, León Bible, 920, Léon

\-ox on shoulders of winged figure identifies luke, “lucas” also inscribed

\-very stylized, long fingers and toes pointed outward, solid stripes of color and cartooney face, similar to islamic luxury goods like the ivory carvings

Maius, Woman Clothed with the Sun, The Morgan Beatus, 940–945, tempera on vellum, Monastery of San Salvador at Tábara, León, Spain

\-beatus is commentary on Revelation, description of the apocalypse; made in monastery of northwest Spain by Maius

\-latin labels, battle scene, very literal interpretation of a woman clothed with the sun, moon at her feet and crowned by twelve stars

\-laboring to bring child into world, seven-headed serpent ready to eat kid, knotted in middle, angels save baby and give to the throne of God, serpent tries to drown woman, she escapes, angels conquer snake (Satan), fallen angel bodies below

\-woman is mary and kid is Christ, represents christian triumph and victory over evil

\-Carolingian miniscule is legible today, geometric border, nightmarish, abandonment of naturalism, intentional damage to head of Satan

Granada

Creation Tapestry, Wool and linen, c. 1000, Girona, Spain, 12’ x 15’

\-actually an embroidery, Christian object perhaps to decorate altar or interior of a religious space

\-Christ with cruciform in center in blessing pose, scenes of Genesis

\-four corners have the four winds, wheel blown around by personification, 12 laborers for each month and blocks for solstices, bottom is story of saint and constantine

Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, 1074–1120

\-houses body of Saint James, large pilgrimage site

\-thick walls necessary for elevation, small windows, rounded arches → Romanesque architecture, corinthian capital columns

\-basilica crossed by transcept with crucifix layout, enter at feet of cross, hall around and behind the altar for pilgrimages, able to visit little chapels