sociology - ethnic perspectives

booklet 2

colonialism

the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically

marxism

study 1 - Cox

cox developed a theory of racism based on marxist ideas: what is racism a product of?

racism is a product of capitalism, racism is developed by exploiters (bourgeoise) against the exploited (proletariat)

race as a human creation

created by the ruling class, racism is a set of beliefs used to justify and sustain the exploitation of one group by another

early capitalism and colonialism:

the workforce was exploited and actions were justified through racism

divide and rule:

racism enabled capitalist colonists to develop a policy of ‘divide and rule’ which prevented the proletariat coming together as a homogenous group

according to cox, is it only white people who are capable of racism?

no, but white people developed capitalism, and therefore it was them who first developed racism

how does capitalism continue to benefit from racism?

the ruling class continue to make profits as a result of racism

who criticises cox?

patterson

evaluation of cox

why does patterson disagree with cox’s argument?

• cox’s theory is ‘race blind’ - ethnic minority groups can be racist

• racism is deprived from capitalism/colonialism but comes from a clash of cultures

• racism will eventually disappear through assimilation

summary of cox

• only white people are racist

• racism is used to justify the exploitation of the workforce and capitalism

• racism is a fixed element in society

marxism

study 2 - The Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (BCCCs)

what is the link between racism and colonialism?

racism predated colonialism and racism existed before capitalism

what were the economic vs. cultural explanations?

both economic and cultural factors were important but cultural factors helped explain racism

what was britain like in the 1970s and early 1980s?

ethnic minorities were seen as the cause of economic problems such as high unemployment. they were used as a group to be blamed, rather than blaming the system of capitalism

what is new racism?

racism which focused on the cultural differences between white and minority ethnic groups rather than the biological superiority

what is resistance in relation to racism?

it was assumed that ethnic minorities accept racism, however in reality they challenge and resist it

who criticises the BCCC?

weberians

evaluation of the BCCCs

why do weberians disagree with the BCCC?

• there is no evidence that the capitalist class is responsible for the existence and continuation of racism

• they don’t account for differences in markey situation within the ethnic minority working class

• it is difficult for ethnic minority groups to resist and challenge racism because they have a low status in society

summary of BCCC

• capitalists deliberately constructed racism

• ethnic minorities experience racism and inequality

• some minority groups actively rejected and fought against racism

marxism

study 3 - Castles and Kosack

what tops of jobs are immigrant workers concentrated in?

low paid and poor working condition jobs. most immigrants work in manual work in unskilled or semi-skilled jobs

why are immigrant worker concentrated in low paid jobs?

mainly due to discrimination against immigrants. this is because ethnic minorities are used as a reserve army of labour which equals low wages

how do castles and kosack explain capitalist economies?

capitalist economies are unstable because there are times of economic boom and economic slump.

how do castles and kosack explain distinctive stratum?

immigrant workers are the most disadvantaged groups within the working class and as such, they form a distinctive stratum

what is an example of a distinctive stratum?

white working class vs. ethnic minority working class

what is a divided working class according to castles and kosack?

the working class is divided into two. this situation is beneficial to the ruling class as minority groups can be scapegoated and attention is diverted from the failings of the capitalist system

who criticises castles and kosack?

functionalists/new right

evaluation of castles and kosack

why do functionalist/new right disagree with castles and kosack?

• ethnic minorities do not always form a reserve army of labour. many have income jobs characterised by high income

• ethnic minorities do not experience racism because we live in a meritocratic society

• capitalism is beneficial for everyone including ethnic minorities

summary of castles and kosack

• ethnic minorities are used as a reserve army of labour

• ethnic minorities experience racism and discrimination

• capitalism results in the exploitation of ethnic minorities

marxism

study 4 - Hall

how does hall explain that cultural factors help create racism?

ethnic minorities are economically exploited by capitalism but culture helps to create racism

ideological state apparatus

institutions/tools used by the bourgeoisie to maintain their power

what problems does hall say were caused by capitalism in 1970s?

economic recession, high levels of unemployment, and poverty

scapegoats

individuals/groups who are blamed for a problem they haven’t caused in order to create distractions

how were ethnic minorities used as scapegoats at the time?

hall argues that ethnic minorities are used as scapegoats because the media focused on immigrants and black crime (muggings) and suggested ethnic minorities were to blame for economic problems

how have ethnic minorities been used as scapegoats more recently?

polish workers are portrayed as a threat to jobs and as a result, are seen as causing higher unemployment levels

who criticises hall?

modood

evaluation of hall

why does modood disagree with hall?

• there are now more positive representations of ethnic minorities in the media

• there is no evidence that ethnic minorities are concentrated in lower levels of occupations

• it is difficult to make generalisations about ethnic minority inequality

summary of hall

• ethnic minorities are portrayed as threats and used as scapegoats in the media

• ethnic minorities experience inequality, poverty, and exploitation under the capitalist system

• ethnic minorities continue to face racial discrimination

weberian perspective

study 1 - Weber

what is the difference between marx and weber?

weber recognisesthe difference between ethnic minority groups (class, status, party) rather than marx who views them as homogenous in terms of class

market situation

how much a person sells their wage labour for

work situation

some workers have more authority than others and have more choice and freedom than others

how does market and work situation link to ethnicity?

white british people are more likely to have a superior market and work situation compared to ethnic minorities. therefore white british people have advantaged life chances

social closure

white british middle-class will try and monopolise privilege and exclude ethnic minorities from their positions of privilege

how does status divide a class group?

ethnic minority manual workers have a lower status than white manual workers (and middle-class asians) so may experience status inequality in form of prejudicial attitudes

party/power and ethnicity

trade unions tend to me dominated by white members so ethnic minorities and underrepresented and tend to exercise less power and influence in society.

patterson

who criticises weber?

evaluation of weber

why does patterson disagree with weber?

• capitalism plays a major role in poor work and market situations

• the most significant reason for racism and discrimination is a clash of cultures

• discrimination may lead to physical amalgamation. inequalities won’t exist when people from different ethnicities have children

summary of weber

• ethnic minorities have a disadvantaged work and market situation

• disadvantages ethnic minorities face are due to equal economic and cultural factors

• assimilation is not the answer to reducing inequality

study 2 - Miles

racialised class fractions

ethnic minorities are separate from the white working class in terms of culture, despite having similar economic situations

cultural differences:

there are significant cultural differences between ethnic minorities and white working class. for example, asians may place more importance on family ties

different market positions:

increasing numbers of ethnic minorities are entering the ranks of the professional middle class, but only the lower middle class where status and pay are not very high. or, in lower and middle management positions.

white fight

white middle class do not accept ethnic minorities having the same status or position as them. for example, successful asians are moving into medicine

miles notes that some ethnic minorities who are members of the middle class may see their interests as laying with capitalism:

for example, the asian emphasis on entrepreneurship may be advantageous in achieving business success and do not allow racism to effect their liberty. capitalism is beneficial for this reason

why is miles a weberian theorist?

he recognises differences in cultures between ethnic minority groups e.g variation in market situations, rather than viewing them as homogenous.

who criticises miles?

castles and kosack

evaluation of miles

why do castles and kosack disagree with miles?

• as society becomes more multicultural, ethnic differences will cease to exist

• racism and discrimination will not disappear

• the position of ethnic minority groups will not keep improving within a capitalist society as they are required by capitalists to be a reserve army of labour

summary of miles

• the white middle class do not accept ethnic minorities having the same status as them - white fight

• asian groups see their interests with laying in capitalism

• ethnic minorities are entering the professional middle class

study 3 - Barron and Norris

primary labour market

well paid, secure jobs with good prospects

secondary labour market

poorly paid, insecure jobs with few prospects

how does the primary and secondary labour market link with ethnicity?

the primary labour market is dominated by white men whereas ethnic minorities are concentrated in the secondary labour market

status and discrimination

ethnic minorities have lower status than those with a similar market position as a result of discrimination

legal and political framework

trade unions are usually white dominated and are accused of favouring white workers and being less interested in protecting rights of Black workers. the legal and political framework of supporting Black people is weak. the race relations act 1976 is feeble

why is barron and norris’s theory a weberian theory?

barron and norris acknowledge a difference in both market position and stars in ethnic minority groups

who disagrees with barron and norris?

• new right

• murray

• davidson

evaluation of barron and norris

• new right argues some ethnic minorites are in crucial primary labour market jobs. britian’s richest man is an ethnic minority

• murray argues inequality is due to ethnic minorities cultural failings

• davidson says that barron and norris ignore differences between ethnic minority men and ethnic minority men

summary of barron and norris

• ethnic minorities are focused in the secondary labour market

• inequality experienced by ethnic minorities is due to discrimination

• ethnic minorities are concentrated in the secondary labour market

study 4- Rex and Tomlinson

material disadvantage and the underclass:

ethnic minorities form a separate underclass because of material disadvantages. as a result, they are disadvantaged in the labour market, housing and education

colonial past:

britain needs to be understood in the light of the colonial past e.g west indies

consequences of the underclass:

a black underclass has been created of people who feel alienated. some may feel socially excluded from the standard of living, experience harassment and feel marginalised

why is rex and tomlinsons theory a weberian theory?

they acknowledge class, status and party

• class: material disadvantage

• status: racism

• party: the lack of power ethnic minorities have

who criticises rex and tomlinson?

murray

evaluation of rex and tomlinson

• some ethnic minorities are exceeding their white counterparts in education and the labour market

• rex and tomlinson failed to explain why some ethnic minorities are advantaged

• murray argues that racism is not the cause of inequality but young african caribbean’s are work shy and welfare dependent

summary of rex and tomlinson

• ethnic minorities are passive victims of racism

• ethnic minorities are disadvantaged due to the hostility directed at them by the white majority

• racism is the cause of inequality

functionalist/new right

study 1 - Patterson

what is the host/immigrant model?

this refers to the idea that britain has a consensus over its norms and values, which is disturbed by other ethnic groups bringing contrasting cultures rather than adopting the host culture

what is an example of host/immigrant culture?

west indies are boisterous and noisy whereas english hosts are quiet and value privacy

what is cultural strangeness?

other cultures make white people anxious. patterson believes ethnic minorities shouldn’t retain their own cultural values because it makes white people anxious

what are three causes of racial prejucode, discrimination, and inequality?

• host cultures fear of cultural difference and change

• host cultures fear of resentment at having to compete for. resources

• failure of ethnic minorities to assimilate

why is patterson optimistic?

he believes we will eventually reach racial harmony

what are the processes of assimilation of ethnic minorities into british society?

• accommodation - finding employment and customs of co-workers

• integration - both white and black people were encouraged to socialise with one another outside of work

• assimilation - complete adaptations by ethnic minority groups to the society, and complete acceptances of them by the rest of society

• physical amalgamation - interbreeding leads to complete disappearance of the distinctive feature of the immigrant groups and their hosts

who criticises patterson?

• postmodernists

• cox

• weberians

evaluation of patterson

• postmodernists argue that britain is a multicultural society in which different ethnic cultures co-exist

• cox believes that patterson ignores the role of capitalism in racism and assimilation will never become more than a goal

• weberians argue that ethnic minorites will not assimilate because they have lower class, party, and status

summary of patterson

• ethnic minority groups will assimilate into ‘british culture’

• assimilation will happen

• division is purely based on culture differences

study 2 - New Labour

it is believed that the new labour government was influenced by the assimilation model

assimilation model

people should denounce their own culture and values

self segregation:

ethnic minorities live in a ‘comfort zone’ with their ‘own kind’ as a result of discrimination. e.g there is a supposed asian desire and choice for residential self-segregation. they are choosing to live in areas where they are the majority

white flight:

white people are moving elsewhere as a result of not being the majority anymore. e.g asian pupils become the majority and affluent white middle class consequently responded by moving elsewhere

what solutions did new labour introduce to the perceived problems?

the government introduced a citizenship tests where in order to get british citizenship, immigrants to the uk must successfully answer questions on aspects of british culture. they also believe that ethnic minorities should assimilate

who criticises new labour?

barron and norris

evaluation of new labour

• they pass blame onto ethnic minority groups and ignore other factors

• they are ethnocentric because they assume british culture is superior

• barron and norris argue that ethnic minorities are disadvantaged as they are primarily concentrated in the secondary labour market

summary of new labour

• ethnic minorities are responsible for their own inequalities

• immigrants must adopt britishness

• white people are left to compete for jobs

study 3 - Murray

who are the ‘black underclass’

it is distinguished by its behaviour and culture, and the particular desire to not work

how does this link the family?

50% of african caribbean families with children are headed by a single parent which suggests such children aren’t being socialised into the dominant culture of society

what is the cause of inequality according to murray?

murray argues inequality was not the result of poverty and opportunity. a key reason is the overly generous welfare benefits which removes incentive for men to work. so, children aren’t correctly socialised and turn to a life of crime and deviance as they lack male role models

why is the growing size of the underclass a threat to the social and economic well-being of the country?

its members are responsible for raising crime rates and the benefits paid to them are costly for tax payers. there is now less stigma around relying on benefits.

evaluation of murray

• rex and tomlinson argue that structural problems like low skills and discrimination aren’t due to ‘dependency’

• surveys show their norms and values with regards to work are no different from mainstream society

• black feminists argue that black women suffer from racism and sexism, therefore structural factors are the cause of inequalities.

summary of murray

• the black underclass are lazy and idle

• most african caribbeans are workshop and welfare dependant

• culture is the cause of inequality

study 4 - Sewell

what is the link between african caribbean boys and lone parent families?

57% of african caribbean families with children were headed by lone parents, compared with 25% of white familes

what is the result of african caribbean families being headed by lone parents?

african caribbean boys lack male role models and the discipline provided by a father figure. so, they are not socialised into the dominant cultural norms and are culturally deprived

how does peer pressure link to african caribbean boys?

the lack of a male role model makes african caribbean boys vulnerable to peer pressure and are drawn into aggressive gangs, which encourages disrespect of authorities. this form of black masculinity is reflected and reinforced by the media

what is a ‘cultural comfort zone’

the subculture of black masculinity provides a cultural comfort zone for african caribbean young males. it compensates for their rejection faced by their fathers and wider society, but often leads to educational failure.

evaluation of sewell

• sewell ignores other factors (racism/discrimination) to explain why african caribbean boys reject authority

• marxists argue that capitalism is the key cause of inequality

• neo-marxists argue that anti-social behaviour is due to alienation and marginalisation of african caribbeans

summary of sewell

• african caribbean boys reject authority because most are raised in lone parent families

• lone parent families are the cause of cultural deprivation, and therefore inequalities

• anti-social behaviour is the result of a lack of discipline