Psych 2042 - Ch. 1

Research studies in abnormal child psychology seek to:

1. Define normal and abnormal behavior for children of different ages, sexes, and ethnic and cultural backgrounds
2. Identify the cases and correlates of abnormal behavior
3. Make predictions about long-term outcomes
4. Develop and evaluate methods for treatment and/or prevention

4 Reasons for skepticism about research in abnormal child psychology

1. Experts frequently disagree
2. Studies appearing in mainstream media are oversimplified
3. Findings often conflict with one another
4. Research has led to different treatments— some have been helpful; some have had no effect; and some have been harmful

The difference between science and pseudoscience is

The quality of the evidence, how it was obtained, and how it is presented

Incidence rates

the extent to which new cases of a disorder appear over a specified time period

Prevalence rates

all cases (new and existing) observed during a specified time period

Correlates

- variables associated with one another at a particular point in time
- ex: icecream sales and shark attacks or height and weight
- Although No clear proof that one precedes the other

Risk factors

variables that precede an outcome of interest
- variables which causes an increase in mental health disorder
- ex: parents who use drugs
- Increase the chance of a negative outcome

Protective factors

- a personal or situational variables that mitigates a child developing a disorder
-variables which causes a decreases in mental health diorder
-ex: parental involvement
- Decrease the chance of a negative outcome

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs)

Children are randomly assigned to different treatment and control conditions

Treatment efficacy

Whether a treatment can produce changes under well-controlled (research) conditions

Treatment effectiveness

Whether the treatment can be shown to work in clinical practice

3 types of interventions:

1. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs)
2. Treatment efficacy
3. Treatment effectiveness

3 types of measurements:

1.Standardization
2.Reliability
3.Validity

Standardization

Application of standards or norms to a technique to ensure consistency in measurement

Reliability

The degree to which a measurement obtained using the same technique is consistent, for example, over time or across assessors

Validity

The degree to which a technique measures what it is designed to measure

2 research strategies

1. Internal validity
2. External validity

Internal validity

- how much a particular variable, rather than extraneous influences, accounts for the results
o For example: found that relaxation training for 5-year-old children decreased nighttime fears. It is possible that the observed decrease may be due to the extraneous influences of maturing or the effects of testing

External validity

The degree to which findings can be generalized to other people, settings, times, measures, and characteristics outside of the labratory

Comorbidity

When the sample is defined to have simultaneous occurrence of two or more disorders

Characteristics of true experiments

1. Researchers have maximum control over the independent variable
2. Subjects are randomly assigned
3. Needed control conditions are applied
4. Possible bias sources are controlled

Natural experiments

involve comparisons between conditions that already exist

3 historical views on disabled children:

1. Ancient Greek/Roman view
2. Before the 18th century
3. By end of 18th century

Ancient Greek/Roman view

The disabled were a burden - scorned, abandoned, or put to death

Before the 18th century

Children were subjected to harsh treatment and largely ignored

By end of 18th century

Interest in abnormal child behavior surfaced

John Locke

(17th century)
- The emergence of social conscience
- Believed children should be raised with thought and care, not indifference and harsh treatment

Jean-Marc Itard

(19th century)
- the emergence of social conscience
- Focused on the care, treatment, and training of "mental defectives"

Leta Hollingworth

- the emergence of social conscience
- Distinguished individuals with mental retardation ("imbeciles") from those with psychiatric disorders ("lunatics")

Benjamin Rush

- the emergence of social conscience
- Claimed that children were incapable of adult-like insanity
- Children with normal cognitive abilities but disturbing behavior suffer from "moral insanity"

Late 19th century

- mental illnesses were first viewed as biological problems.
- This was thwarted by the prevailing bias that the individual was at fault for deviant or abnormal behavior

Early 20th century

- belief that disorders could not be influenced by treatment or learning.
- There was a return to custodial care and punishment of behaviors
- Mental disorders viewed as "diseases" led to fear of contamination
- Eugenics (sterilization) and segregation (institutionalization) were implemented

Psychoanalytic Theory

- Linked mental disorders to childhood experiences and surroundings
- Focuses on the interaction of developmental and situational processes
- mental disorders can be helped with proper environment or therapy
- model for abnormal child psychology

Behaviorism

- in order to understand behaviour, one only needs to consider the reinforcing
-Laid the foundation for evidence-based treatments
- Pavlov's dogs
- Watson's studies on the elimination of children's fears and the theory of emotions
Famous study: Little Albert

Psychodynamic Approaches

1930 to 1950
Most children with intellectual or mental disorders were institutionalized

Late 1940s

Spitz' studies pointed out the harmful impact of institutional life

1945 to 1965

institutionalization decreased
Placement in foster care and group homes increased

1950s and early 1960s

behavior therapy emerged as a systematic approach to treatment of child and family disorders
Behavior therapy is currently a prominent form of therapy

3 requirements of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

1. Free and appropriate public education for children with special needs in the least restrictive environment
2. Each child must be assessed with culturally appropriate tests
3. An individualized education program (IEP) for each child

United Nations General Assembly

(2007) adopted a new convention to protect the rights of persons with disabilities
The convention supports the attitude of considering persons with disabilities as individuals with human rights

UNITED NATIONS Declaration of the Rights of the Child

1 All children have the right to follow these rights, no matter what their race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, or where they were born or who they were born to
2 You have the special right to grow up and to develop physically and spiritually in a healthy and normal way
3 You have a right to a name and to be a member of a country.
4 You have a right to special care and protection and to good food, housing and medical services.
5 You have the right to special care if handicapped in any way.
6 You have the right to love and understanding
7 You have the right to go to school for free, to play, and to have an equal chance to develop yourself
8 You have the right always to be among the first to get help.
9 You have the right to be protected against cruel acts or exploitation
10 You should be taught peace, understanding, tolerance and friendship among all people.

Child Disorders

Patterns of behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or physical symptoms linked with one or more of the following:
1. Distress
2. Disability
3. Increased risk for further suffering or harm

Normal distribution for child disorders

Anything below the 2nd percentile or above the 98th percentile is considered "abnormal"

DSM-5 guidelines

The primary purpose of using terms is to help describe and organize complex features of behavior patterns

Stigmatization is a challenge because:

1. Separate the child from the disorder
2. Problems may be the result of children's attempts to adapt to abnormal or unusual circumstances

Competence

- The ability to successfully adapt in the environment
- Successful adaptation is influenced by culture and ethnicity

Abnormal child psychology considers:

1. The degree of maladaptive behavior
2. The extent to which normal developmental milestones are met
- Knowledge of developmental tasks provides important background information

3 kind of Developmental tasks

1. Infancy to preschool
2. Middle childhood
3. Adolescence

Infancy to preschool developmental task

1. attachment to caregiver
2. language
3. differentiation of self from environment

Middle childhood developmental task

1.self control and compliance
2.school adjustment (attendance, appropriate conduct)
3. academic achievement (e.g, learning to read, do arithmetic)
4.getting along with peers (acceptance, making friends)
5.rule-governed conduct following rules of society for moral behaviour and prosocial conduct

Adolescence

1. successful transition to secondary schooling
2. academic achievement (learning skills needed for higher education or work)
3. involvement in extracurricular activities (e.g, athletics, clubs)
4. forming close friendships within and across gender
5. forming a cohesive sense of self-identity

Two types of developmental pathways

1. Multifinality
2. Equifinality

Multifinality

various outcomes may stem from similar beginnings

Equifinality

similar outcomes stem from different early experiences and developmental pathways

Resilience

The ability to fight off or recover from misfortune
Associated with strong self-confidence, coping skills, avoiding risk situations
Connected to a "protective triad" of resources

Connected to a "protective triad" of resources

1. Strength of the child
2. Strength of the family
3. Strength of the school/community

Mental health problems are more likely to occur in children:

From disadvantaged families
From abusive or neglectful families
Receiving inadequate child care
Born with very low birth weight
Whose parents have a mental illness or substance abuse problems

Environmental stressors may:

1. Act as nonspecific stressors - bring about poor adaptation or the onset of a disorder
2. Affect the extent to which a child's problems are attenuated(reduced) or exacerbated(worse)

Native American/First Nations and African American children

are at greatest risk of poverty

Poverty is associated with:

Impairments in learning ability and school achievement,
less education and low-paying jobs
inadequate health care
single-parent status
poor nutrition and exposure to violence

Poverty's impact on children

1. More conduct problems,
2. chronic illness,
3. school problems,
4. emotional disorders, and
5. cognitive/learning problems
6. adjustment, which affects learning and mental health

Sex Differences

- Boys and girls express problems differently
- Certain disorders are more common in boys than girls, and vice versa
- ex: Aggression is expressed more directly by boys; expressed more indirectly by girls
- Sex differences appear negligible in children under age three
- Disparities increase with age

Externalizing Problems

Higher in boys than girls in preschool and early elementary years
Exhibited as acting-out behaviors, e.g., aggression and delinquency
Rates for boys and girls converge by age 18

Internalizing Problems

Higher rates among girls
Associated with:
Anxiety, depression, or withdrawn behavior
Somatic complaints
Eating disorders
Emotional disorders with peak age of onset in adolescence

Types of Childrearing environments that predict resilience:

For boys:
1. A male role model
2. Structure and rules
3. Encouragement of emotional expressiveness
For girls:
1. Households that combine risk taking and independence with support from female caregiver

Different values, beliefs, and practices group contribute to development and expression of children's disorders:

Affect how people/institutions react to children's problems
Affect how problems are expressed
Children express their problems differently across cultures

Social and cultural beliefs and values influence

1. The meaning given to behaviors
2. The way in which behaviors are responded to
3. The forms of expression and their outcomes

children with the most chronic and serious disorders face life-long difficulties such as

- least likely to finish school
- most likely to have social problems and psychiatric disorders

d. through teachers, counselors, or parents

A child typically enters the mental health system \____.
a. by asking for a referral from a pediatrician
b. through the criminal justice system
c. by the actions, positive or negative, of peers
d. through teachers, counselors, or parents

a. failure to demonstrate expected developmental progress

Many child and adolescent problems can be best described as the \____.
a. failure to demonstrate expected developmental progress
b. absence of the key survival skills needed to thrive
c. result of excessive expectations by parents
d. stresses associated with educational demands

a. psychological disorders

Patterns of behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or physical symptoms shown by an individual are defined as \____.
a. psychological disorders
b. defiance of norms
c. disobedience
d. distress

d. eliminate distress and promote further development

Interventions for children and adolescents are often intended to \____.
a. restore previous levels of functioning
b. serve as a warning for negative behavior
c. reform behavior to conform to norms
d. eliminate distress and promote further development

a. possession by the devil or other evil forces

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, children's mental health problems were attributed to \____.
a. possession by the devil or other evil forces
b. poor parenting practices
c. chemical imbalances
d. low self-esteem

d. considered to be a parent's right for educating or disciplining a child

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, acts of child maltreatment were \____.
a. illegal and punishable by severe fines
b. very uncommon but largely overlooked
c. practiced primarily among lower socioeconomic classes
d. considered to be a parent's right for educating or disciplining a child

c. emotionally sensitive beings

John Locke (1632-1704) advanced the belief that children were \____.
a. possessed by the devil
b. uncivilized
c. emotionally sensitive beings
d. young adults

a. his orientation toward children was one of care and helping, in contrast to the times

The work of Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard (1775-1838) is notable in that \____.
a. his orientation toward children was one of care and helping, in contrast to the times
b. he was the first documented individual to use behavioral techniques with children
c. he was a strong advocate for sending disturbed children to asylums
d. he initiated the Massachusetts' Stubborn Child Act

b. Environmental stimulation

How did Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard believe he could tame the "wild boy of Aveyron"?
a. Exorcism
b. Environmental stimulation
c. Allow him to behave as he did in the wild
d. Peer modeling
ANSWER: b

d. Massages

Which method did Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard use to tame the "wild boy of Aveyron"?
a. Cold showers
b. Tranquilizers
c. Timeouts
d. Massages

b. imbeciles

At the end of the nineteenth century, children with intellectual disabilities were regarded as \____.
a. suffering from "moral insanity"
b. imbeciles
c. lunatics
d. possessed by the devil

a. suffering from "moral insanity"

At the end of the nineteenth century, children with normal cognitive abilities but disturbing behavior were thought to be \____.
a. suffering from "moral insanity"
b. imbeciles
c. diseased
d. possessed by the devil

a. masturbatory insanity

The first disorder unique to children and adolescents was \____.
a. masturbatory insanity
b. schizoid disorder
c. moral insanity
d. manic depression

d. eugenics and segregation

During the early part of the twentieth century, the biological disease model of mental problems led to \____.
a. the belief that mental illness had no physical basis
b. improved treatments
c. more controlled research methods
d. eugenics and segregation

b. early childhood experiences

Freud was the first to link mental disorders to \____.
a. neurotransmitter imbalances
b. early childhood experiences
c. possession by evil spirits
d. classical conditioning

b. multiple causes of behavior

Freud's theory focused on \____.
a. single causes of behavior
b. multiple causes of behavior
c. diseases of the mind
d. neurological causes of behavior

c. nosologies

Efforts to classify psychiatric disorders into descriptive categories are called \____.
a. etiologies
b. differentials
c. nosologies
d. prescriptives

c. Watson

Who is referred to as the "Father of Behaviorism"?
a. Freud
b. Albert
c. Watson
d. Rayner

b. evidence-based

The development of \____ treatment can be traced back to the rise of behaviorism in the early 1900s.
a. psychodynamic
b. evidence-based
c. group-based
d. humanist

a. institutionalized

In the first half of the twentieth century, most children with mental disorders were \____.
a. institutionalized
b. treated with behavior therapy
c. treated with psychoanalysis
d. overlooked

d. raised serious questions about the harmful impact of institutionalization on children's development

The work of Rene Spitz \____.
a. led to the development of an organic model of mental illness
b. is the first documented attempt to help a special needs child
c. led to some of the first empirically supported behavioral techniques for eliminating children's fears
d. raised serious questions about the harmful impact of institutionalization on children's development

c. behavior therapy

During the 1950s and 1960s, \____ emerged as a systematic approach to the treatment of childhood disorders.
a. psychoanalysis
b. family therapy
c. behavior therapy
d. institutionalization

d. education in the least restrictive environment possible

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; Public Law 104-446) mandates \____.
a. segregated education for children with special needs
b. the use of IQ tests for assessing children
c. standardized programs for children identified as special needs
d. education in the least restrictive environment possible

c. To tailor the child's school program to his or her needs

What is the purpose of an Individualized Educational Plan (IEP)?
a. To test the child using standardized tests
b. To accurately diagnose each child's illness against a model
c. To tailor the child's school program to his or her needs
d. To understand the role of family history in mental health

b. improve disability rights and abolish discrimination

The 2007 United Nations Treaty adopted a new convention to \____.
a. provide free and appropriate education to children with special needs
b. improve disability rights and abolish discrimination
c. provide psychotherapy services to children with special needs
d. improve test measures to diagnose children with special needs

d. distress

Psychological disorders are defined as patterns of behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or physical symptoms that are associated with \____.
a. deviance
b. defiance of norms
c. disobedience
d. distress

a. stage of development

In contrast to adults, abnormality in children is often defined in terms of \____.
a. stage of development
b. everyday stress
c. disability
d. addiction

b. Karlee is an anxious child.

Which description of a child would be considered labeling a child rather than describing her behavior?
a. Ashley is a child with mental retardation.
b. Karlee is an anxious child.
c. Amber is a child with autism.
d. Robyn is a child who is small.

b. relatively arbitrary

Boundaries between abnormal versus normal functioning are \____.
a. scientifically defined
b. relatively arbitrary
c. well-established
d. determined by each family

d. Multifinality

What concept states that various outcomes may stem from similar beginnings such as child maltreatment?
a. Trifinality
b. Ethnic finality
c. Equifinality
d. Multifinality